6 Benzodiazepine Adverse Effects
Table of Contents
6.2 Adverse Effects: General / Multisystem.. 2
6.3 Adverse Effects by Organ System.. 6
6.4 Comparative Adverse Effects to Other Substances. 10
6.5 Adverse Effects by Subpopulation. 10
See also
Benzodiazepine Withdrawal
Benzodiazepine Executive Function
Benzodiazepine Non-Medical Use
Benzodiazepines + Opioids
Benzodiazepines +/- Opioids OD-OD Death
6.1 Reviews |
Expert Opinion
Lader M, Morton S. Benzodiazepine problems. Br J Addict. 1991;86(7):823-8. Abstract
North DA, McAvoy BR, Powell AM. Benzodiazepine use in general practice – is it a problem? N Z Med J. 1992;105(938):287-9. Abstract
Olfson M. Surveillance of adverse psychiatric medication effects. JAMA. 2015;313(12):1256-7. Link
Salzman C. Benzodiazepine treatment of panic and agoraphobic symptoms: use, dependence, toxicity, abuse. J Psychiatr Res. 1993;27 Suppl 1:97-110. Abstract
Meta – Analyses
Reviews
Crowe SF, Barker MJ. Benzodiazepines. In: Neuropsychology and Substance Use: State-of-the-Art and Future Directions. Kalechstein A, van Gorp WG, eds. New York, London: Taylor and Francis, 2007. Link
Janhsen K, Roser P, Hoffmann K. The problems of long-term treatment with benzodiazepines and related substances. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(1-2):1-7. Article
Leonard BE. Sleep disorders and anxiety: biochemical antecedents and pharmacological consequences. J Psychosom Res. 1994;38 Suppl 1:69-87. Abstract
Longo LP, Johnson B. Addiction: Part I. Benzodiazepines – side effects, abuse risk and alternatives. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61(7):2121-8. Article
Uzun S, Kozumplik O, Jakovljević M, Sedić B. Side effects of treatment with benzodiazepines. Psychiatr Danub. 2010;22(1):90-3. Article
Woods JH, Wagner G. Current benzodiazepine issues. Psychopharmacology. 1995;118:107-115. Article
6.2 Adverse Effects: General / Multisystem |
Noyes R, DuPont RL, Pecknold JC, et al. Alprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia: results from a multicenter trial. II. Patient acceptance, side effects, and safety. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(5):423-8. Abstract
Falls / Fractures / Injuries
Aizenberg D, Weizman A, Weiss A, et al. The association in elderly hospitalized patients, between psychotropic drugs and hip fractures resulting from falls. Exp Aging Res. 2015;41(5):546-55. Abstract
Allain H, Bentue-Ferrer, D, Polard E, et al. Postural instability and consequent falls and hip fractures associated with use of hypnotics in the elderly: a comparative review. Drugs Aging. 2005;22(9):749-65. Abstract
Avidan AY, Fries BE, James ML, et al. Insomnia and hypnotic use, recorded in the minimum data set, as predictors of falls and hip fractures in Michigan nursing homes. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(6):955-62. Article
Bakken MS, Engeland A, Engesæter LB, et al. Risk of hip fracture among older people using anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs: a nationwide prospective cohort study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;70(7):873-80. Article
Berdot S, Bertrand M, Dartigues JF, et al. Inappropriate medication use and risk of falls – a prospective study in a large community-dwelling elderly cohort. BMC Geriatr. 2009;9:30. Article
Bolton JM, Metge C, Lix L, et al. Fracture risk from psychotropic medications: a population-based analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28(4):384-91. Abstract
Cumming RG, Le Couteur DG. Benzodiazepines and risk of hip fractures in older people: a review of the evidence. CNS Drugs. 2003;17(11):825-37. Abstract
de Vries OJ, Peeters G, Elders P, et al. The elimination half-life of benzodiazepines and fall risk: two prospective observational studies. Age Ageing. 2013;42(6):764-770. Abstract
French DD, Campbell R, Spehar A, Angaran DM. Benzodiazepines and injury: a risk adjusted model. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2005;14(1):17-24. Abstract
French DD, Chirikos TN, Spehar A, et al. Effect of concomitant use of benzodiazepines and other drugs on the risk of injury in a veterans population. Drug Saf. 2005;28(12):1141-50. Abstract
Hartikainen S, Lönnroos E, Louhivuori K. Medication as a risk factor for falls: critical systematic review. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62(10):1172-81. Abstract
Khong TP, de Vries F, Goldenberg JS, et al. Potential impact of benzodiazepine use on the rate of hip fractures in five large European countries and the United States. Calcif Tissue Int. 2012;91(1):24-31. Article
Landi F, Onder G, Cesari M, et al. Psychotropic medications and risk for falls among community-dwelling frail older people: an observational study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(5):622-6. Abstract
Leipzig RM, Cumming RG, Tinetti ME. Drugs and falls in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis: I. Psychotropic drugs. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1999;47(1):30-9. Abstract
Mets MA, Volkerts ER, Olivier B, Verster JC. Effect of hypnotic drugs on body balance and standing steadiness. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14(4):259-67. Abstract
Neutel CI, Hirdes JP, Maxwell CJ, Patten SB. New evidence on benzodiazepine use and falls: the time factor. Age Ageing. 1996;25(4):273-8. Abstract
Nurmi-Lüthje I, Kaukonen JP, Lüthje P, et al. Use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine-related drugs among 223 patients with an acute hip fracture in Finland: Comparison of benzodiazepine findings in medical records and laboratory assays. Drugs Aging. 2006;23(1):27-37. Abstract
Obayashi K, Araki T, Nakamura K, et al. Risk of falling and hypnotic drugs: retrospective study of inpatients. Drugs R D. 2013;13(2):159-64. Article
Oster G, Huse DM, Adams SF, et al. Benzodiazepine tranquilizers and the risk of accidental injury. Am J Public Health. 1990;80(12):1467-70. Article
Panneman MJ, Goettsch WG, Kramarz P, Herings RM. The costs of benzodiazepine-associated hospital-treated fall Injuries in the EU: a Pharmo study. Drugs Aging. 2003;20(11):833-9. Abstract
Pariente A, Dartigues JF, Benichou J, et al. Benzodiazepines and injurious falls in community dwelling elders. Drugs Aging. 2008;25(1):61-70. Abstract
Passaro A, Volpato S, Romagnoni F, et al. Benzodiazepines with different half-life and falling in a hospitalized population: The GIFA study. Gruppo Italiano di Farmacovigilanza nell’Anziano. J Clin Epidemiol. 2000;53(12):1222-9. Abstract
Price JW. Benzodiazepines and workplace safety: an examination of post accident urine drug tests. J Addict Med. 2014;0(0):1-5. Abstract
Ray WA, Griffin MR, Downey W. Benzodiazepines of long and short elimination half-life and the risk of hip fracture. JAMA. 1989;262(23):3303-3307. Abstract
Stenbacka M, Jansson B, Leifman A, Romelsjö A. Association between use of sedatives or hypnotics, alcohol consumption, or other risk factors and a single injurious fall or multiple injurious falls: a longitudinal general population study. Alcohol. 2002;28(1):9-16. Abstract
van der Hooft CS, Schoofs MW, Ziere G, et al. Inappropriate benzodiazepine use in older adults and the risk of fracture. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;66(2):276-82. Article
Vestergaard P, Rejnmark L, Mosekilde L. Anxiolytics and sedatives and risk of fractures: effects of half-life. Calcif Tissue Int. 2008;82(1):34-43. Abstract
Vestergaard P, Rejnmark L, Moskilde L. Anxiolytics, sedatives, antidepressants, neuroleptics and the risk of fracture. Osteoporos Int. 2006;17(6):807-16. Abstract
Woolcott JC, Richardson KJ, Wiens MO, et al. Meta-analysis of the impact of 9 medication classes on falls in elderly persons. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(21):1952-60. Abstract DARE Summary
Wysowski DK, Baum C, Ferguson WJ, et al. Sedative-hypnotic drugs and the risk of hip fracture. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996;49(1):111-3. Abstract
Hospitalization / Emergency Department
Drug Abuse Warning Network. 2011
[No authors listed] Emergency department visits involving nonmedical use of selected prescription drugs – United States, 2004-2008. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). MMWR. 2010 Jun 18;59(23):705-9. Article
Day C. Benzodiazepines in combination with opioid pain relievers or alcohol: greater risk of more serious ED visit outcomes. CBHSQ Report. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 2013-.2014 Dec 18. Document
Hampton LM, Daubresse M, Hsien-Yen C, et al. Emergency department visit by adults for psychiatric medication adverse events. JAMA Psych. 2014;71(9):1006-14. Article
Jones CM, McAninch JK. Emergency department visits and overdose deaths from combined use of opioids and benzodiazepines. Am J Prev Med. 2015;49(4):493-501. Abstract
Infection / Immune System
Ickowicz S, Hayashi K, Dong H, et al. Benzodiazepine use as an independent risk factor for HIV infection in a Canadian setting. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;155:190-4. Abstract
Schlumpf M, Parmar R, Schreiber A, et al. Nervous and immune systems as targets for developmental effects of benzodiazepines. A review of recent studies. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1992;18(3-4):145-58. Abstract
Mortality – All Cause See also Benzodiazepines +/- Opioids OD-OD Death
Amarasuriya UK, Myles PR, Sanders RD. Long-term benzodiazepine use and mortality: are we doing the right studies? Curr Drug Saf. 2012;7(5):367-71. Abstract
Gaither JR, Goulet JL, Becker WC, et al. The association between receipt of guideline-concordant long-term opioid therapy and all-cause mortality. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31(5):492-501. Abstract
Hausken AM, Skurtveit S, Tverdal A. Use of anxiolytic or hypnotic drugs and total mortality in a general middle-aged population. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2007;16(8):913-8. Abstract
Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Wingard DL, et al. Mortality hazard associated with prescription hypnotics. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43(9):687-93. Abstract
Merlo J, Ostergren PO, Månsson NO, et al. Mortality in elderly men with low psychosocial coping resources using anxiolytic-hypnotic drugs. Scand J Public Health. 2000;28(4):294-7. Abstract
Merlo J, Hedblad B, Ogren M, et al. Increased risk of ischaemic heart disease mortality in elderly men using anxiolytics-hypnotics and analgesics. Results of the 10-year follow-up of the prospective population study “Men born in 1914”, Malmo, Sweden. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;49(4):261-5. Abstract
Parsaik AK, Mascarenhas SS, Khosh-Chashm D, et al. Mortality associated with anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs-A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2016;50(6):520-33. Abstract
Walton GR, Hayashi K, Bach P, et al. The impact of benzodiazepine use on mortality among polysubstance users in Vancouver, Canada. Public Health Rep. 2016;131(3):491-9. Abstract
Zhang D, Zhang J, Zuo Z, Liao L. A retrospective analysis of data from toxic substance-related cases in Northeast China (Heilongjiang) between 2000 and 2010. Forensic Sci Int. 2013;231(1-3):172-7. Abstract
Quality of Life
Lugoboni F, Mirijello A, Mirijello A, et al. Quality of life in a cohort of high-dose benzodiazepine dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;142:105-9. Abstract
Tamburin S, Federico A, Faccini M, et al. Determinants of quality of life in high-dose benzodiazepine misusers. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(1). pii: E38. Article
van Hulten R, Teeuw B, Bakker A, Leufkens HG. Initial benzodiazepine use and improved health-related quality of life. Pharm World Sci. 2005;27(1):41-6. Abstract
van Hulten R, Teeuw KB, Bakker AB, et al. Characteristics of current benzodiazepine users as indicators of differences in physical and mental health. Pharm World Sci. 2000;22(3):96-101. Abstract
Zandstra SM, Van Rijswijk E, Rijnders CA, et al. Long-term benzodiazepine users in family practice: differences from short-term users in mental health, coping behaviour and psychological characteristics. Fam Pract. 2004;21(3):266-9. Abstract
Zandstra SM, Furer JW, van de Lisdonk EH, et al. Differences in health status between long-term and short-term benzodiazepine users. Br J Gen Pract. 2002;52(483):805-8. Article
6.3 Adverse Effects by Organ System |
Atopy
Hematologic
Cancer
Immunologic
Atopy
Dermatologic
Babcock GF, Hernandez L, Yadav E, et al. The burn wound inflammatory response is influenced by midazolam. Inflammation. 2012;35(1):259-70. Abstract
Egydio F, Pires GN, Tufik S, Andersen ML. Wound-healing and benzodiazepines: does sleep play a role in this relationship? Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2012;67(7):827-30. Article
HEENT
Touzani K, Bodnar RJ, Sclafani A. Neuropharmacology of learned flavor preferences. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2010;97(1):55-62. Article
Respiratory
Bailey PL, Andriano KP, Goldman M, et al. Variability of the respiratory response to diazepam. Anesthesiology. 1986;64(4):460-5. Abstract
Denaut M, Yernault JC, De Coster A. Double blind comparison of the respiratory effects of parenteral lorazepam and diazepam in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Curr Med Res Opin. 1975;2:611-5. Abstract
Horsfall JT, Sprague JE. The pharmacology and toxicology of the ‘Holy Trinity’. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2017;120(2):115-119. Abstract
Jordan C, Lehane JR, Jones JG. Respiratory depression following diazepam: reversal with high-dose naloxone. Anesthesiology. 1980;53(4):293-8. Abstract
Maillard D, Thiercelin JF, Fuseau E, et al. Effects of zolpidem versus diazepam and placebo on breathing control parameters in healthy human subjects. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1992;12(1):27-35. Abstract
Mason M, Cates CJ, Smith I. Effects of opioid, hypnotic and sedating medications on sleep-disordered breathing in adults with obstructive sleep apnea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7:CD011090. Abstract
Ranløv PJ, Nielsen SP. Effect of zopiclone and diazepam on ventilatory response in normal human subjects. Sleep. 1987;10 Suppl 1:40-7. Abstract
Rapoport DM, Greenberg HE, Goldring RM. Differing effects of the anxiolytic agents buspirone and diazepam on control of breathing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1991;49(4):394-401. Abstract
Cardiovascular
Hempelmann G, Seitz W, Piepenbrock S. Diazepam (valium). Changes in hemodynamics, myocardial oxygen consumption and vascular tone. Anaesthesist. 1978;27(8):357-63. Abstract
Seitz W, Hempelmann G, Piepenbrock S. Cardiovascular effects of flunitrazepam (rohypnol, RO-5-4200). Anaesthesist. 1977;26(5):249-56. Abstract
Soleimanpour H, Ziapour B, Negargar S, et al. Ventricular tachycardia due to flumazenil administration. Pak J Biol Sci. 2010;13(23):1161-3. Abstract
GI
Andrade RJ, Lucena MI, Aguilar J, et al. Chronic liver injury related to use of bentazepam: an unusual instance of benzodiazepine hepatotoxicity. Dig Dis Sci. 2000;45(7):1400-4. Abstract
Salari P, Abdollahi M. Systematic review of modulators of benzodiazepine receptors in irritable bowel syndrome: is there hope? World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17(38):4251-7. Article
GU
Gyn
Musculoskeletal: See Falls / Fractures / Injury above
Endocrine
Arvat E, Giordano R, Grottoli S, Ghigo E. Benzodiazepines and anterior pituitary function. J Endocrinol Invest. 2002;25(8):735-47. Abstract
Mikkelsen JD, Søderman A, Kiss A, Mirza N. Effects of benzodiazepines receptor agonists on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Eur J Pharmacol. 2005;519(3):223-30. Abstract
Pomara N, Willoughby LM, Ritchie JC, et al. Sex-related elevation in cortisol during chronic treatment with alprazolam associated with enhanced cognitive performance. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2005;182(3):414-9. Abstract
Neurologic
Kolb B, Gibb R. Brain plasticity and behavior in the developing brain. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20(4):265-76. Article
Karkos J. The neurotoxicity of benzodiazepines. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 1991;59(12):498-520. Abstract.
Schlumpf M, Parmar R, Schreiber A, et al. Nervous and immune systems as targets for developmental effects of benzodiazepines. A review of recent studies. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1992;18(3-4):145-58. Abstract
Dementia: See Benzodiazepines Executive Function
Psychiatric
Breggin PR. Analysis of adverse behavioral effects of benzodiazepines with a discussion on drawing scientific conclusions from the FDA’s spontaneous reporting system. J Mind Behav. 1998;19(1):21-50. Article
Gené-Badia J, Blay-Pueyo C, Soler-Vila M. Risk factors in the use of benzodiazepines. Fam Pract. 1988;5(4):283-8. Abstract
Lesser IM, Rubin RT, Rifkin A, et al. Secondary depression in panic disorder and agoraphobia. II. Dimensions of depressive symptomatology and their response to treatment. J Affect Disord. 1989;16(1):49-58. Abstract
Lesser IM, Rubin RT, Pecknold JC, et al. Secondary depression in panic disorder and agoraphobia. I. Frequency, severity, and response to treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(5):437-43. Abstract
Mattila-Evenden M, Bergman U, Franck J. A study of benzodiazepine users claiming drug-induced psychiatric morbidity. Nord J Psychiatry. 2001;55(4):271-8. Abstract
Nagy LM, Krystal JH, Woods SW, Charney DS. Clinical and medication outcome after short-term alprazolam and behavioral group treatment in panic disorder. 2.5 year naturalistic follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(11):993-9. Abstract
Pyke RE, Kraus M. Alprazolam in the treatment of panic attack patients with and without major depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 1988 ;49(2):66-8. Abstract
Aggression: See Benzodiazepine Aggression / Suicide / Violence
Anxiety: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
Cohen SI. Alcohol and benzodiazepines generate anxiety, panic and phobias. J R Soc Med. 1995;88(2):73-7. Article
Morgan K, Oswald I. Anxiety caused by a short-life hypnotic. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1982 Mar 27;284(6320):942–942. Article
Voyer P, Landreville P, Moisan J, et al. Insomnia, depression and anxiety disorders and their association with benzodiazepine drug use among the community-dwelling elderly: implications for mental health nursing. Int J Psychiatr Nurs Res. 2005;10(2):1093-116. Abstract
Axis II: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
BPD: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
Perlis RH, Ostacher MJ, Miklowitz DJ, et al. Benzodiazepine use and risk of recurrence in bipolar disorder: a STEP-BD report. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(2):194-200. Abstract
Depression: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Antidepressant and benzodiazepine for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(1):CD001026. Abstract
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Is antidepressant-benzodiazepine combination therapy clinically more useful? A meta-analytic study. J Affect Disord. 2001;65(2):173-7. Abstract
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Antidepressant plus benzodiazepine for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(2):CD001026. Abstract
Martin P. Coadministration benzodiazepine and antidepressant drugs: the state of art. Encephale. 2006;32(5 Pt 1):753-66. Abstract
Fear
Graham SJ, Scaife JC, Langley RW. et al. Effects of lorazepam on fear-potentiated startle responses in man. J Psychopharmacol. 2005;19(3):249-58. Abstract
Riba J, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Urbano G, et al. Differential effects of alprazolam on the baseline and fear-potentiated startle reflex in humans: a dose-response study. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001;157(4):358-67. Abstract
Uzun S, Kozumplik O. Reinforcement of irritability during therapy with benzodiazepines. Psychiatr Danub. 2011;23(1):129-30. Article
Psychosis: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
PTSD: See also Benzodiazepine use Anxiety
Suicidality: See Benzodiazepine Aggression / Suicide / Violence
Violence: See Benzodiazepine Aggression / Suicide / Violence
Pediatric
Neonate
Chow CK, Koren G. Sedating drugs and breastfeeding. Can Fam Physician. 2015;61(3):241-3. Article
Iqbal MM, Sobhan T, Ryals, T. Effects of commonly used benzodiazepines on the fetus, the neonate, and the nursing infant. Psychiatric Services. 2002;53:39-49. Article
McElhatton PR. The effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol. 1994;8(6):461-75. Abstract
Soussan C, Gouraud A, Portolan G, et al. Drug-induced adverse reactions via breastfeeding: a descriptive study in the French Pharmacovigilance Database. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2014 Nov;70(11):1361-6. Abstract
6.4 Comparative Adverse Effects to Other Substances |
Lachenmeier DW, Rehm J. Comparative risk assessment of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and other illicit drugs using the margin of exposure approach. Sci Rep. 2015;5:8126. Article
Mura P, Kintz P, Ludes B, et al. Comparison of the prevalence of alcohol, cannabis and other drugs between 900 injured drivers and 900 control subjects: results of a French collaborative study. Forensic Sci Int. 2003;133(1-2):79-85. Abstract
Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet. 2010;1558-65. Article
6.5 Adverse Effects by Subpopulation |
Armed Services / Veterans
French DD, Chirikos TN, Spehar A, et al. Effect of concomitant use of benzodiazepines and other drugs on the risk of injury in a veterans population. Drug Saf. 2005;28(12):1141-50. Abstract
Addiction: See Benzodiazepine effects Non-medical use
Cancer
Cardiovascular Disease
Merlo J, Hedblad B, Ogren M, et al. Increased risk of ischaemic heart disease mortality in elderly men using anxiolytics-hypnotics and analgesics. Results of the 10-year follow-up of the prospective population study “Men born in 1914”, Malmo, Sweden. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;49(4):261-5. Abstract
Care Facilities
Cognitive Dysfunction
Criminal Justice
Elderly – see also Falls / Fractures / Injuries above
Bourin M. The problems with the use of benzodiazepines in elderly patients. Encephale. 2010;36(4):340-7. Abstract
Carrière I, Mura T, Pérès K, et al. Elderly benzodiazepine users at increased risk of activity limitations: influence of chronicity, indications, and duration of action – the three-city cohort. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;23(8):840-51. Abstract
Closser MH. Benzodiazepines and the elderly. a review of potential problems. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):35-41. Abstract
Foy A, Drinkwater V, March S, Mearrick P. Confusion after admission to hospital in elderly patients using benzodiazepines. BMJ. 1986:25;293(6554):1072. Article
Gales BJ, Menard SM. Relationship between the administration of selected medications and falls in hospitalized elderly patients. Ann Pharmacother. 1995;29(4):354-8. Abstract
Kirby M, Denihan A, Bruce I, et al. Benzodiazepine use among the elderly in the community. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;14(4):280-4. Abstract
Kruse WH, Problems and pitfalls in the use of benzodiazepines in the elderly. Drug Saf. 1990;5(5):328-44. Abstract
Lagnaoui R, Begaud B, Moore N, et al. Benzodiazepine use and risk of dementia: a nested case-control study. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002;55(3):314-8. Abstract
Madhusoodanan S, Bogunovic OJ. Safety of benzodiazepines in the geriatric population. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2004;3(5):485-93. Abstract
Merlo J, Ostergren PO, Månsson NO, et al. Mortality in elderly men with low psychosocial coping resources using anxiolytic-hypnotic drugs. Scand J Public Health. 2000;28(4):294-7. Abstract
Merlo J, Hedblad B, Ogren M, et al. Increased risk of ischaemic heart disease mortality in elderly men using anxiolytics-hypnotics and analgesics. Results of the 10-year follow-up of the prospective population study “Men born in 1914”, Malmo, Sweden. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;49(4):261-5. Abstract
Peron EP, Marcum ZA, Boyce R, et al. Year in review: medication mishaps in the elderly. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2011;9(1):1-10. Abstract
Peron EP, Gray SL, Hanlon JT. Medication use and functional status decline in older adults: a narrative review. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2011;9(6):378-91. Article
Robles Bayón A, Gude Sampedro F. Inappropriate treatments for patients with cognitive decline. Neurologia. 2014;29(9):523-32. Abstract
van der Hooft CS, Schoofs MW, Ziere G, et al. Inappropriate benzodiazepine use in older adults and the risk of fracture. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;66(2):276-82. Article
Ethnicity
African-American
Asian
Caucasian
Hispanic
Native American
Pacific Island
Health Care Providers
Hepatic Disease
HIV / AIDS
LGBT
Men
Pain: See Benzodiazepine use Pain
Ciccone DS, Just N, Bandilla EB, et al. Psychological correlates of opioid use in patients with chronic nonmalignant pain: a preliminary test of the downhill spiral hypothesis. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;20(3):180-92. Abstract
Palliative Care – End of Life
Beller EM, van Driel ML, McGregor L, et al. Palliative pharmacological sedation for terminally ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1:CD010206. Abstract
Hopprich A, Günther LD, Laufenberg-Feldmann R, et al. Palliative sedation at a university palliative care unit – a descriptive analysis. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2016;141(8):e60-6. Abstract
Morita T, Chinone Y, Ikenaga M, et al. Efficacy and safety of palliative sedation therapy: a multicenter, prospective, observational study conducted on specialized palliative care units in Japan. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2005;30(4):320-8. Abstract
Schur S, Radbruch L, Masel EK, et al. Walking the line. Palliative sedation for existential distress: still a controversial issue? Wien Med Wochenschr. 2015;165(23-24):487-90. Abstract
Simon ST, Higginson IJ, Booth S, et al. Benzodiazepines for the relief of breathlessness in advanced malignant and non-malignant diseases in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;10:CD007354. Abstract
Sprung CL, Ledoux D, Bulow HH, et al. Relieving suffering or intentionally hastening death: where do you draw the line? Crit Care Med. 2008;36(1):8-13. Abstract
Sykes N, Thorns A. Sedative use in the last week of life and the implications for end-of-life decision making. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(3):341-4. Abstract
ten Have H, Welie JV. Palliative sedation versus euthanasia: an ethical assessment. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2014;47(1):123-36. Abstract
van Deijck RH, Rondas AA, Berghmans RL. Terminal sedation in mentally competent patients: no overriding medical-ethical arguments against in the medical literature. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003;147(50):2479-83. Abstract
Vitetta L, Kenner D, Sali A. Sedation and analgesia-prescribing patterns in terminally ill patients at the end of life. Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2005;22(6):465-73. Abstract
Voeuk A, Oneschuk D. Continuous palliative sedation therapy. Can Fam Physician. 2014;60(9):813-5, e436-8. Article
Pediatric
Psychiatric
See also Benzodiazepines
See also Benzodiazepines Anxiety
Fava GA, Grandi S, Belluardo P, et al. Benzodiazepines and anxiety sensitivity in panic disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1994;18(7):1163-8. Abstract
Nyström C. Effects of long-term benzodiazepine medication. A prospective cohort study: methodological and clinical aspects. Nord J Psychiatry. 2005;59(6):492-7. Abstract
Pélissolo A, Maniere F, Boutges B, et al. Anxiety and depressive disorders in 4,425 long term benzodiazepine users in general practice. Encephale. 2007;33(1):32-8. Abstract
Voyer P, Landreville P, Moisan J, et al. Insomnia, depression and anxiety disorders and their association with benzodiazepine drug use among the community-dwelling elderly: implications for mental health nursing. Int J Psychiatr Nurs Res. 2005;10(2):1093-116. Abstract
Pulmonary Disease
Beaupré A, Soucy R, Phillips R, Bourgouin J. Respiratory center output following zopiclone or diazepam administration in patients with pulmonary disease. Respiration. 1988;54(4):235-40. Abstract
Delpierre S, Jammes Y, Grimaud C, et al. Influence of anxiolytic drugs (Prazepam and Diazepam) on respiratory center output and CO2 chemosensitivity in patients with lung diseases. Respiration. 1981;42(1):15-20. Abstract
Renal Disease
Sleep Disorders
Mendelson WB, Neurotransmitters and sleep. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62 Suppl 10:5-8. Article
Poyares D, Pinto LR, Tavares S, Barros-Vieira S. Sleep promoters and insomnia. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2005;27 Suppl 1:2-7. Article
Voyer P, Landreville P, Moisan J, et al. Insomnia, depression and anxiety disorders and their association with benzodiazepine drug use among the community-dwelling elderly: implications for mental health nursing. Int J Psychiatr Nurs Res. 2005;10(2):1093-116. Abstract
Sleep Apnea
Surgery
Swallowing Disorders
Women
Perinatal
Uzun S, Kozumplik O, Jakovljević M, Sedić B. Side effects of treatment with benzodiazepines. Psychiatr Danub. 2010;22(1):90-3. Article
Perinatal: Teratogenic Potential
Addis A, Dolovich LR, Einarson TR, Koren G. Can we use anxiolytics during pregnancy without anxiety? Can Fam Physician. 2000;46:549-51. Article
Altshuler LL, Cohen L, Szuba MP, et al. Pharmacologic management of psychiatric illness during pregnancy: dilemmas and guidelines. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(5):592-606.
Bellantuono C, Tofani S, Di Sciascio G, Santone G. Benzodiazepine exposure in pregnancy and risk of major malformations: a critical overview. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013;35(1):3-8. Abstract
Bonnot O, Vollset SE, Godet PF, et al. In utero exposure to benzodiazepine. Is there a risk for anal atresia with lorazepam? Encephale. 2003;29(6):553-9. Abstract
Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M, Sørensen HT, Olsen J. A population-based case-control study of oral chlordiazepoxide use during pregnancy and risk of congenital abnormalities. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2004;26(4):593-8. Abstract
Dolovich LR, Addis A, Vaillancourt JM, et al. Benzodiazepine use in pregnancy and major malformations or oral cleft: meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies. BMJ. 1998;317(7162):839-43. Article
Iqbal MM, Sobhan T, Ryals T. Effects of commonly used benzodiazepines on the fetus, the neonate, and the nursing infant. Psychiatr Serv. 2002;53(1):39-49. Abstract
Iqbal MM, Aneja A, Fremont WP. Effects of chlordiazepoxide (Librium) during pregnancy and lactation. Conn Med. 2003;67(5):259-62. Abstract
Iqbal MM, Sobhan T, Aftab SR, Mahmud SZ. Diazepam use during pregnancy: a review of the literature. Del Med J. 2002;74(3):127-35. Abstract
Lin AE, Peller AJ, Westgate MN, et al. Clonazepam use in pregnancy and the risk of malformations. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2004;70(8):534-6. Abstract
Marinucci L, Balloni S, Carinci F, et al. Diazepam effects on non-syndromic cleft lip with or without palate: epidemiological studies, clinical findings, genes and extracellular matrix. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2011;10(1):23-33. Abstract
McGrath C, Buist A, Norman TR. Treatment of anxiety during pregnancy: effects of psychotropic drug treatment on the developing fetus. Drug Saf. 1999;20(2):171-86. Abstract
Oberlander TF, Warburton W, Misri S, et al. Major congenital malformations following prenatal exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors and benzodiazepines using population-based health data. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 2008;83(1):68-76. Abstract
Pérault MC, Favrelière S, Minet P, Remblier C. Benzodiazepines and pregnancy. Therapie. 2000;55(5):587-95. Abstract
Wikner BN, Källén B. Are hypnotic benzodiazepine receptor agonists teratogenic in humans? J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;31(3):356-9. Abstract
Wikner BN, Stiller CO, Bergman U, et al. Use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine receptor agonists during pregnancy: neonatal outcome and congenital malformations. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2007;16(11):1203-10. Abstract
Nursing
Birnbaum CS, Cohen LS, Bailey JW, et al. Serum concentrations of antidepressants and benzodiazepines in nursing infants: A case series. Pediatrics. 1999;104(1):e11. Abstract
Burt VK, Suri R, Altshuler L, et al. The use of psychotropic medications during breast-feeding. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(7):1001-9. Abstract
Howland RH. Prescribing psychotropic medications during pregnancy and lactation: principles and guidelines. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2009;47(5):19-23. Abstract
Kanto JH. Use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy, labour and lactation, with particular reference to pharmacokinetic considerations. Drugs. 1982;23(5):354-80. Abstract
McElhatton PR. The effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol. 1994;8(6):461-75. Abstract
Menon SJ. Psychotropic medication during pregnancy and lactation. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2008;277(1):1-13. Abstract
Olive G, Rey E. Benzodiazepines and pregnancy. Transplacental passage, labor and lactation. Encephale. 1983;9(4 Suppl 2):87B-96B. Abstract
Rey E, Giraux P, d’Athis P, et al. Pharmacokinetics of the placental transfer and distribution of clorazepate and its metabolite nordiazepam in the feto-placental unit and in the neonate. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1979;15(3):181-5. Abstract
Suri RA, Altshuler LL, Burt VK, Hendrick VC. Managing psychiatric medications in the breast-feeding woman. Medscape Womens Health. 1998;3(1):1. Abstract
