9 Non – Medical Use: Benzodiazepines
Table of Contents
9.7 Neuro Pharmacology of Benzodiazepine Addiction. 9
9.9 Etiology: Non-Medical Use and Addiction. 10
9.14 Prevention of Non-medical Use. 14
9.17 Treatment: Patient Placement 17
9.18 Treatment: Harm Reduction. 18
9.19 Treatment: Withdrawal – See Benzodiazepine Withdrawal 18
9.20 Treatment: Modalities. 18
9.21 Treatment: Modality Combinations. 19
9.22 Treatment: Modality v Modality Comparisons. 19
9.23 Treatment: Medications. 19
9.24 Treatment: Medication Combinations. 21
9.25 Treatment: Medication v Medication Comparisons. 21
9.26 Treatment: Medication v Modality Comparisons. 21
9.27 Treatment: Other Disease Comparisons. 22
9.30 Non – Medical Use by Subpopulation. 23
See also:
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepine Effects
Benzodiazepines + / – Opioids Overdose
Benzodiazepine Withdrawal
9.1 Reviews |
Expert Opinion
[No authors listed] Abuse of benzodiazepines: the problems and the solutions. A report of a Committee of the Institute for Behavior and Health, Inc. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1988;14 Suppl 1:1-69. Abstract
Ashton H. The diagnosis and management of benzodiazepine dependence. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005;18(3):249-55. Abstract
Busto UE, Sellers EM. Anxiolytics and sedative/hypnotics dependence. Br J Addict. 1991;86(12):1647-52. Abstract
Cole JO, Chiarello RJ. The benzodiazepines as drugs of abuse. J Psychiatr Res. 1990;24 Suppl 2:135-44. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals – implications for problems of long-term use and abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997;134(1):1-37. Abstract
Heberlein A, Bleich S, Kornhuber J, Hillemacher T. Benzodiazepine dependence: causalities and treatment options. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 2009;77(1):7-15. Abstract
Lalive AL, Rudolph U, Lüscher C, Tan KR. Is there a way to curb benzodiazepine addiction? Swiss Med Wkly. 2011;141:w13277. Abstract
Marienfeld CB, Tek E, Diaz E, et al. Psychiatrist decision-making towards prescribing benzodiazepines: the dilemma with substance abusers. Psychiatr Q. 2012;83(4):521-9. Abstract
O’Brien CP. Benzodiazepine use, abuse, and dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66 Suppl 2:28-33. Abstract
Salzman C. Addiction to benzodiazepines. Psychiatr Q. 1998;69(4):251-61. Abstract
Salzman C. Benzodiazepine treatment of panic and agoraphobic symptoms: use, dependence, toxicity, abuse. J Psychiatr Res. 1993;27 Suppl 1:97-110. Abstract
Tyrer P. Dependence as a limiting factor in the clinical use of minor tranquilizers. Pharmacol Ther. 1988;36(2-3):173-88. Abstract
Uhlenhuth EH, Balter MB, Ban TA, Yang K. International study of expert judgment on therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and other psychotherapeutic medications: IV. Therapeutic dose dependence and abuse liability of benzodiazepines in the long-term treatment of anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19(6 Suppl 2):23S-29S. Abstract
Warneke LB. Benzodiazepines: abuse and new use. Can J Psychiatry. 1991;36(3):194-205. Abstract
Guidelines
Lader M, Russell J. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of benzodiazepine dependence: summary of a report from the Mental Health Foundation. Addiction. 1993;88(12):1707-8. Link
VA/DOD 2015 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders
Meta – Analyses
Reviews
Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD, Comer SD. Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med. 2013;125(4):115-30. Abstract
Javed MA. Misuse of benzodiazepine. J Pak Med Assoc. 1995;45(11):289-90. Article
Jones JD, Mogali S, Comer SD. Polydrug abuse: a review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;125(1-2):8-18. Article
Lader M. Anxiolytic drugs: dependence, addiction and abuse. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1994;4(2):85-91. Abstract
Miller NS, Gold MS. Abuse, addiction, tolerance, and dependence to benzodiazepines in medical and nonmedical populations. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1991;17(1):27-37. Link
Pelissolo A, Bisserbe JC. Dependence on benzodiazepines. Clinical and biological aspects. Encephale. 1994;20(2):147-57. Abstract
Schweizer E, Rickels K. Benzodiazepine dependence and withdrawal: a review of the syndrome and its clinical management. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1998;393:95-101. Abstract
Sellers EM, Ciraulo DA, DuPont RL, et al. Alprazolam and benzodiazepine dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 1993;54 Suppl:64-75; discussion 76-7. Abstract
Weaver MF. Prescription sedative misuse and abuse. Yale J Biol Med. 2015;88(3):247-56. Article
9.2 History |
[No authors listed] Abuse of benzodiazepines: the problems and the solutions. A report of a Committee of the Institute for Behavior and Health, Inc. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1988;14 Suppl 1:1-69. Abstract
Essig CF. Addiction to non-barbiturate sedative and tranquilizing drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1964;5:334-43. Link
Juergens S. Alprazolam and diazepam: addiction potential. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):43-51. Abstract
Lader M. History of benzodiazepine dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):53-9. Abstract
Ladewig D. Dependence liability of the benzodiazepines. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1984;13(2):139-49. Abstract
Swinson RP, Pecknold JC, Kirby ME. Benzodiazepine dependence. J Affect Disord. 1987;13(2):109-18. Abstract
9.3 Animal Studies |
Ator NA, Ator NA, Selectivity in the generalization profile in baboons trained to discriminate lorazepam: benzodiazepines, barbiturates and other sedative/anxiolytics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1997;282(3):1442-57. Article
Ator NA, Griffiths RR. Differential generalization to pentobarbital in rats trained to discriminate lorazepam, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, or triazolam. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1989;98(1):20-30. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals – implications for problems of long-term use and abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997;134(1):1-37. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Lamb RJ, Sannerud CA, et al. Self-injection of barbiturates, benzodiazepines and other sedative-anxiolytics in baboons. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1991;103(2):154-61. Abstract
Rowlett JK, Platt DM, Lelas S, et al. Different GABAA receptor subtypes mediate the anxiolytic, abuse-related, and motor effects of benzodiazepine-like drugs in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(3):915-20. Article
9.4 Terminology |
Kleber HD. The nosology of abuse and dependence. J Psychiatr Res. 1990;24 Suppl 2:57-64. Abstract
Miller NS, Mahler JC. Addiction to and dependence on benzodiazepines. Diagnostic confusion in clinical practice and research studies. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):61-7. Abstract
Miller NS, Gold MS. Benzodiazepines: a major problem. introduction. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):3-7. Abstract
9.5 Epidemiology |
Barthelmé B, Poirot Y. Anxiety level and addiction to first-time prescriptions of anxiolytics: a psychometric study. Presse Med. 2008;37(11):1555-60. Abstract
Asia
Okumura Y, Shimizu S, Matsumoto T. Prevalence, prescribed quantities, and trajectory of multiple prescriber episodes for benzodiazepines: a 2-year cohort study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;158:118-25. Abstract
Australia
Ross J, Darke S. The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction. 2000;95(12):1785-93. Abstract
Wood D. Drug diversion. Aust Prescr. 2015;38(5):164-6. Article
Canada
Fischer B, Gooch J, Goldman B, et al. Non-medical prescription opioid use, prescription opioid-related harms and public health in Canada: an update 5 years later. Can J Public Health. 2014;105(2):e146-9. Abstract
Fischer B, Argento E. Prescription opioid related misuse, harms, diversion and interventions in Canada: a review. Pain Physician. 2012;15(3 Suppl):ES191-203. Article
Murphy Y, Wilson E, Goldner EM, Fischer B. Benzodiazepine use, misuse, and harm at the population level in Canada: a comprehensive narrative review of data and developments since 1995. Clin Drug Investig. 2016;36(7):519-30. Abstract
Tucker D, Hayashi K, Milloy MJ, et al. Risk factors associated with benzodiazepine use among people who inject drugs in an urban Canadian setting. Addict Behav. 2016;52:103-7. Abstract
Voyer P, Préville M, Cohen D, et al. The prevalence of benzodiazepine dependence among community-dwelling older adult users in Quebec according to typical and atypical criteria. Can J Aging. 2010;29(2):205-13. Abstract
Europe
Pauly V, Pradel V, Pourcel L, et al. Estimated magnitude of diversion and abuse of opioids relative to benzodiazepines in France. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;126(1-2):13-20. Abstract
US
Bachhuber MA, Hennessy S, Cunningham CO, Starrels JL. Increasing benzodiazepine prescriptions and overdose mortality in the United States, 1996-2013. Am J Pub Health. 2016;106:686-8. Article
de las Cuevas C, Sanz E, de la Fuente J. Benzodiazepines: more “behavioral” addiction than dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2003;167(3):297-303. Abstract
Ibañez GE, Levi-Minzi MA, Rigg KK, Mooss AD. Diversion of benzodiazepines through healthcare sources. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2013;45(1):48-56. Article
Johansson BA, Berglund M, Hanson M, et al. Dependence on legal psychotropic drugs among alcoholics. Alcohol Alcohol. 2003;38(6):613-8. Abstract
Kurtz SP, Surratt HL, Levi-Minzi MA, Mooss A. Benzodiazepine dependence among multidrug users in the club scene. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;119(1-2):99-105. Article
Morel A, Grall-Bronnec M, Bulteau S, et al. Benzodiazepine dependence in subjects with alcohol use disorders: what prevalence? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016;15(10):1313-9. Abstract
National Survey on Drug Use and Health: US Behavioral Health Trends. 2014.
Rigg KK, Kurtz SP, Surratt HL. Patterns of prescription medication diversion among drug dealers. Drugs (Abingdon Engl). 2012;19(2):144-155. Abstract
Roache JD, Griffiths RR. Lorazepam and meprobamate dose effects in humans: behavioral effects and abuse liability. J Pharm Exp Ther. 1987;243(3):978-88. Article
Shukla L, Bokka S, Shukla T, et al. Benzodiazepine and “Z-Drug” dependence: data from a tertiary care center. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2017;19(1). Article
Benzodiazepine Non-Medical Use Liability
Ator NA. Contributions of GABAA receptor subtype selectivity to abuse liability and dependence potential of pharmacological treatments for anxiety and sleep disorders. CNS Spectr. 2005;10(1):31-9. Abstract
Busto U, Kaplan HL, Zawertailo L, Sellers EM. Pharmacologic effects and abuse liability of bretazenil, diazepam, and alprazolam in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994;55(4):451-63. Abstract
de Wit H, Doty P. Preference for ethanol and diazepam in light and moderate social drinkers: a within-subjects study. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1994;115(4):529-38. Abstract
de Wit H, Griffiths RR, Testing the abuse liability of anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs in humans. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1991;28(1):83-111. Abstract
deWit H, Pierri J, Johanson CE. Reinforcing and subjective effects of diazepam in nondrug-abusing volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989;33(1):205-13. Abstract
de Wit H, Johanson CE, Uhlenhuth EH. Reinforcing properties of lorazepam in normal volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1984;13(1):31-41. Abstract
de Wit H, Johanson CE, Uhlenhuth EH. The dependence potential of benzodiazepines. Curr Med Res Opin. 1984;8 Suppl 4:48-59. Abstract
de Wit H, Uhlenhuth EH, Johanson CE. Lack of preference for flurazepam in normal volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1984;21(6):865-9. Abstract
Evans SM, Critchfield TS, Griffiths RR. Abuse liability assessment of anxiolytics / hypnotics: rationale and laboratory lore. Br J Addict. 1991;86(12):1625-32. Abstract
Evans SM, Funderburk FR, Griffiths RR. Zolpidem and triazolam in humans: behavioral and subjective effects and abuse liability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990;255(3):1246-55. Abstract
Frauger E, Pauly V, Pradel V, et al. Evidence of clonazepam abuse liability: results of the tools developed by the French Centers for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence (CEIP) network. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2011;25(5):633-41. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Johnson MW. Relative abuse liability of hypnotic drugs: a conceptual framework and algorithm for differentiating among compounds. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66 Suppl 9:31-41. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals–implications for problems of long-term use and abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997;134(1):1-37. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Wolf B. Relative abuse liability of different benzodiazepines in drug abusers. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;10(4):237-43. Abstract
Griffiths RR, Lamb RJ, Ator NA, et al. Relative abuse liability of triazolam: experimental assessment in animals and humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1985;9(1):133-51. Abstract
Griffiths RR, McLeod DR, Bigelow GE, et al. Relative abuse liability of diazepam and oxazepam: behavioral and subjective dose effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1984;84(2):147-54. Abstract
Griffiths RR, McLeod DR, Bigelow GE, et al. Comparison of diazepam and oxazepam: preference, liking and extent of abuse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1984;229(2):501-8. Abstract
Jaffe JH, Bloor R, Crome I, et al. A postmarketing study of relative abuse liability of hypnotic sedative drugs. Addiction. 2004;99(2):165-73. Abstract
Johanson CE, de Wit H. Lack of effect of social context on the reinforcing effects of diazepam in humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1992;43(2):463-9. Abstract
Licata SC, Rowlett JK. Abuse and dependence liability of benzodiazepine-type drugs: GABA(A) receptor modulation and beyond. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2008;90(1):74-89. Abstract
Lile JA, Kelly TH, Hays LR. The reinforcing, self-reported performance and physiological effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, triazolam, hydromorphone, and methylphenidate in cannabis users. Behav Pharmacol. 2010;21(1):29-38. Article
Mumford GK, Evans SM, Fleishaker JC, Griffiths RR. Alprazolam absorption kinetics affects abuse liability. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1995;57(3):356-65. Abstract
Ojha SP, Sigdel S, Meyer-Thompson HG, et al. ’South Asian cocktail’ – the concurrent use of opioids, benzodiazepines and antihistamines among injecting drug users in Nepal and associations with HIV risk behavior. Harm Reduct J. 2014;11:17. Article
Orzack MH, Friedman L, Dessain E, et al. Comparative study of the abuse liability of alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, methaqualone, and placebo. Int J Addict. 1988;23(5):449-67. Abstract
Pauly V, Frauger E, Pradel V, et al. Monitoring of benzodiazepine diversion using a multi-indicator approach. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;26(5):268-77. Abstract
Pradel V, Delga C, Rouby F, et al. Assessment of abuse potential of benzodiazepines from a prescription database using ‘doctor shopping’ as an indicator. CNS Drugs. 2010;24(7):611-20. Abstract
Preston KL, Wolf B, Guarino JJ, Griffiths RR. Subjective and behavioral effects of diphenhydramine, lorazepam and methocarbamol: evaluation of abuse liability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992;262(2):707-20. Abstract
Roache JD, Griffiths RR. Diazepam and triazolam self-administration in sedative abusers: concordance of subject ratings, performance and drug self-administration. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1989;99(3):309-15. Abstract
Roache JD, Griffiths RR. Lorazepam and meprobamate dose effects in humans: behavioral effects and abuse liability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987;243(3):978-88. Abstract
Roache JD, Griffiths RR. Repeated administration of diazepam and triazolam to subjects with histories of drug abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1986;17(1):15-29. Abstract
Roache JD, Griffiths RR. Comparison of triazolam and pentobarbital: performance impairment, subjective effects and abuse liability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1985;234(1):120-33. Abstract
Rush CR, Frey JM, Griffiths RR. Zaleplon and triazolam in humans: acute behavioral effects and abuse potential. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999;145(1):39-51. Abstract
Sellers EM, Ciraulo DA, DuPont RL, et al. Alprazolam and benzodiazepine dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 1993;54 Suppl:64-75; discussion 76-7. Abstract
Senay EC. Addictive behaviors and benzodiazepines: 2. Are there differences between benzodiazepines in potential for physical dependence and abuse liability? Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1990;9(3-4):53-64. Abstract
Tucker D, Hayashi K, Milloy MJ, et al. Risk factors associated with benzodiazepine use among people who inject drugs in an urban Canadian setting. Addict Behav. 2016;52:103-7. Abstract
van Broekhoven F, Kan CC, Zitman FG. Dependence potential of antidepressants compared to benzodiazepines. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26(5):939-43. Abstract
Wolf B, Griffiths RR. Physical dependence on benzodiazepines: differences within the class. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1991;29(2):153-6. Abstract
Zawertailo LA, Busto U, Kaplan HL, Sellers EM. Comparative abuse liability of sertraline, alprazolam, and dextroamphetamine in humans. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995;15(2):117-24. Abstract
Benzodiazepine Source
Fenton MC, Keyes KM, Martins SS, Hasin DS. The role of a prescription in anxiety medication use, abuse, and dependence. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(10):1247-53. Article
Forman RF, Marlowe DB, McLellan AT. The internet as a source of drugs of abuse. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2006;8(5):377-82. Abstract
Samokhvalov AV, Paton-Gay CL, Balchand K, Rehm J. Phenibut dependence. BMJ Case Rep. 2013;2013. pii: bcr2012008381. Article
9.6 Economics |
Nkogho Mengue PG, Abdous B, Berbiche D, et al. Impact benzodiazepine dependence on the use of health services: senior’ health study, Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil. 2013;11(3):229-36. Abstract
Nkogho Mengue PG, Abdous B, Berbiche D, et al. Impact of benzodiazepine dependence on the use of health services: study of the health of seniors. Can J Aging. 2013;32(1):21-30. Abstract
9.7 Neuro Pharmacology of Benzodiazepine Addiction |
Ator NA. Contributions of GABAA receptor subtype selectivity to abuse liability and dependence potential of pharmacological treatments for anxiety and sleep disorders. CNS Spectr. 2005;10(1):31-9. Article
Lader M. Biological processes in benzodiazepine dependence. Addiction. 1994;89(11):1413-8. Abstract
Malcolm RJ. GABA systems, benzodiazepines, and substance dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64 Suppl 3:36-40. Abstract
Reynolds LM, Engin E, Tantillo G, et al. Differential roles of GABA(A) receptor subtypes in benzodiazepine-induced enhancement of brain-stimulation reward. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(11):2531-40. Article
Stephens DN, King SL, Lambert JJ, et al. GABAA receptor subtype involvement in addictive behavior. Genes Brain Behav. 2017;16(1):149-184. Abstract
Tan KR, Rudolph U, Lüscher C. Hooked on benzodiazepines: GABAA receptor subtypes and addiction. Trends Neurosci. 2011;34(4):188-97. Article
Tan KR, Brown M, Labouèbe G, et al. Neural bases for addictive properties of benzodiazepines. Nature. 2010;463(7282):769-74. Article
9.8 Using Non-Medically |
Alteration
Augmentation
Choice of Specific Agent
Diversion
Fischer B, Bibby M, Bouchard M. The global diversion of pharmaceutical drugs, non-medical use and diversion of psychotropic prescription drugs in North America: a review of sourcing routes and control measures. Addiction. 2010;105(12):2062-70. Abstract
Dose
Extended Release
Extraction
Route of Administration
Veldhorst-Janssen NM, Fiddelers AA, van der Kuy PH, et al. A review of the clinical pharmacokinetics of opioids, benzodiazepines, and anti-migraine drugs delivered intranasally. Clin Ther. 2009;31(12):2954-87. Abstract
9.9 Etiology: Non-Medical Use and Addiction |
Risk Factors
Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD, Comer SD. Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med. 2013;125(4):115-30. Article
Kan CC, Hilberink SR, Breteler MHM. Determination of the main risk factors for benzodiazepine dependence using a multivariate and multidimensional approach. Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45(2):88-94. Abstract
Soumerai SB, Simoni-Wastila L, Singer C, et al. Lack of relationship between long-term use of benzodiazepines and escalation to high dosages. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(7):1006-11. Abstract
Stein MD, Kanabar M, Anderson BJ, et al. Reasons for benzodiazepine use among persons seeking opioid detoxification. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2016;68:57-61. Abstract
Viswanathan H, Bharmal M, Thomas J 3rd. Prevalence and correlates of potentially inappropriate prescribing among ambulatory older patients in the year 2001: comparison of three explicit criteria. Clin Ther. 2005;27(1):88-99. Abstract
Impulsivity
Moreno-Ramos L, Fernández-Serrano MJ, Pérez-García M, Verdejo-García A. Impulsivity in men with prescription of benzodiazepines and methadone in prison. Adicciones. 2016 Jun 14:821. Abstract
Initiating Factors
Maintenance Factors
Resiliency Factors
Initiating Factors
Maintenance Factors
Genetics
Initiating Factors
Maintenance Factors
Environment
Initiating Factors
Maintenance Factors
Genetic v Environmental Factors
9.10 Symptoms / Signs |
Konopka A, Pełka-Wysiecka J, Grzywacz A, Samochowiec J. Psychosocial characteristics of benzodiazepine addicts compared to not addicted benzodiazepine users. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;40:229-35. Abstract
Salience / Caving
Linden M, Bär T, Geiselmann B. Patient treatment insistence and medication craving in long-term low-dosage benzodiazepine prescriptions. Psychol Med. 1998;28(3):721-9. Abstract
Mol AJ, Gorgels WJ, Oude Voshaar RC, et al. Associations of benzodiazepine craving with other clinical variables in a population of general practice patients. Compr Psychiatry. 2005;46(5):353-60. Abstract
Reissig CJ, Harrison JA, Carter LP, Griffiths RR. Inhaled vs. oral alprazolam: subjective, behavioral and cognitive effects, and modestly increased abuse potential. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2015;232(5):871-83. Article
Withdrawal – See Benzodiazepine Withdrawal
9.11 Screening |
Aberrancies
Meltzer EC, Rybin D, Meshesha LZ, et al. Aberrant drug-related behaviors: unsystematic documentation does not identify prescription drug use disorder. Pain Med. 2012;13(11):1436-43. Article
Screening Tools
Voyer P, Roussel ME, Berbiche D, Préville M. Effectively detect dependence on benzodiazepines among community-dwelling seniors by asking only two questions. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2010;17(4):328-34. Abstract
Benzodiazepine Craving Questionnaire (BCQ)
Mol AJ, Voshaar RC, Gorgels WJ, et al. Development and psychometric evaluation of the Benzodiazepine Craving Questionnaire. Addiction. 2003;98(8):1143-52. Abstract
Benzodiazepine Dependence Questionnaire (BDEPQ)
Baillie AJ, Mattick RP. The benzodiazepine dependence questionnaire: development, reliability and validity. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;169(3):276-81. Abstract
Minaya O, Fresán A, Cortes-Lopez JL, et al. The Benzodiazepine Dependence Questionnaire (BDEPQ): validity and reliability in Mexican psychiatric patients. Addict Behav. 2011;36(8):874-7. Abstract
Benzodiazepine Dependence Self-Report Questionnaire (Bendep-SRQ)
Kan CC, Hilberink SR, Breteler MH. Determination of the main risk factors for benzodiazepine dependence using a multivariate and multidimensional approach. Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45(2):88-94. Abstract
Kan CC, Breteler MH, van der Ven AH, Zitman FG. Cross-validation of the benzodiazepine dependence self-report questionnaire in outpatient benzodiazepine users. Compr Psychiatry. 2001;42(5):433-9. Abstract
Kan CC, Breteler MH, van der Ven AH, et al. Assessment of benzodiazepine dependence in alcohol and drug dependent outpatients: a research report. Subst Use Misuse. 2001;36(8):1085-109. Abstract
Kan CC, Breteler MH, Timmermans EA, et al. Scalability, reliability, and validity of the benzodiazepine dependence self-report questionnaire in outpatient benzodiazepine users. Compr Psychiatry. 1999;40(4):283-91. Abstract
Oude Voshaar RC, Mol AJ, Gorgels WJ, et al. Cross-validation, predictive validity, and time course of the Benzodiazepine Dependence Self-Report Questionnaire in a benzodiazepine discontinuation trial. Compr Psychiatry. 2003;44(3):247-55. Abstract
Screening Brief Intervention and Referral for Treatment (SBIRT)
Harris SK, Louis-Jacques J, Knight JR. Screening and brief intervention for alcohol and other abuse. Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2014;25(1):126-56. Abstract
Screening Tool of Older Persons’ Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions (STOPP)
Yang PJ, Lee YT, Tzeng SL, et al. Potentially inappropriate prescribing in disabled older patients with chronic diseases: a Screening Tool of Older Persons’ potentially inappropriate Prescriptions versus Beers 2012 Criteria. Med Princ Pract. 2015;24(6):565-70. Article
Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS)
de las Cuevas C, Sanz EJ, de la Fuente JA, et al. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) as screening test for benzodiazepine dependence: SDS validation study. Addiction. 2000;95(2):245-50. Abstract
9.12 Diagnosis |
Nielsen M, Hansen EH, Gøtzsche PC. Dependence and withdrawal reactions to benzodiazepines and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. How did the health authorities react? Int J Risk Saf Med. 2013;25(3):155-68. Abstract
Nielsen M, Hansen EH, Gøtzsche PC. What is the difference between dependence and withdrawal reactions? A comparison of benzodiazepines and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. Addiction. 2012;107(5):900-8. Abstract
DSM
Sedative, Hypnotic, Anxiolytic Use Disorder criteria: DSM-5 Code F13.1
Cottler LB, Grant BF. Characteristics of nosologically informative data sets that address key diagnostic issues facing the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V) and International Classification of Diseases, eleventh edition (ICD-11) substance use disorders workgroups. Addiction. 2006;101 Suppl 1:161-9. Abstract
Hasin D, Hatzenbuehler ML, Keyes K, Ogburn E. Substance use disorders: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) and International Classification of Diseases, tenth edition (ICD-10). Addiction. 2006;101 Suppl 1:59-75. Abstract
Saunders JB, Schuckit MA. The development of a research agenda for substance use disorders diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V). Addiction. 2006;101 Suppl 1:1-5. Abstract
9.13 Assessment |
Addiction Severity Index (ASI)
Ghitza UE, Epstein DH, Preston KL. Self-report of illicit benzodiazepine use on the Addiction Severity Index predicts treatment outcome. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;97(1-2):150-7. Article
9.14 Prevention of Non-medical Use |
Lowry 2016 Prescribing Benzodiazepines ‘As Needed’ May Promote Misuse
Sussman N. Treating anxiety while minimizing abuse and dependence. J Clin Psychiatry. 1993;54 Suppl:44-51. Abstract
Criminal Justice
US Federal
US States
Other Countries
Decision Support
Tamblyn R, Huang A, Perreault R, et al. The medical office of the 21st century (MOXXI): effectiveness of computerized decision-making support in reducing inappropriate prescribing in primary care. CMAJ. 2003;169(6):549-56. Abstract
Terrell KM, Perkins AJ, Dexter PR, et al. Computerized decision support to reduce potentially inappropriate prescribing to older emergency department patients: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57(8):1388-94. Abstract
Education
Kashyap M, D’Cruz S, Sachdev A, Tiwari P. Evidence-based information leads to reduction in inappropriate drug prescribing: Results from Indian older inpatients. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2015;27(4):209-17. Abstract
Pimlott NJ, Hux JE, Wilson LM, et al. Educating physicians to reduce benzodiazepine use by elderly patients: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2003;168(7):835-9. Article
Financial Incentives
Medical Provider
Public
Regulation
Insurance
Media
Medical Provider
Organizations
Pharmaceutical Industry
Pharmacy
Prescriber
Prescription Database
Bachhuber MA, Maughan BC, Mitra N, et al. Prescription monitoring programs and emergency department visits involving benzodiazepine misuse: Early evidence from 11 United States metropolitan areas. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;28:120-3. Abstract
Dormuth CR, Miller TA, Huang A, et al. Effect of a centralized prescription network on inappropriate prescriptions for opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Canadian Drug Safety and Effectiveness Research Network CMAJ. 2012;184(16):E852-6. Article
Gomes T, Juurlink D, Yao Z, et al. Impact of legislation and a prescription monitoring program on the prevalence of potentially inappropriate prescriptions for monitored drugs in Ontario: a time series analysis. CMAJ Open. 2014;2(4):E256-61. Article
Parhami I, Massey J, Trimzi I, et al. Risks associated with co-prescribing opioids and benzodiazepines and Delaware’s Prescription Drug Monitoring Program. Del Med J. 2015;87(9):270-4. Link
Ross-Degnan D, Simoni-Wastila L, Brown JS, et al. A controlled study of the effects of state surveillance on indicators of problematic and non-problematic benzodiazepine use in a Medicaid population. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2004;34(2):103-23. Abstract
9.15 Natural Recovery |
9.16 Treatment |
Ashton H. The treatment of benzodiazepine dependence. Addiction. 1994;89(11):1535-41. Abstract
Authier N, Balayssac D, Sautereau M, et al. Benzodiazepine dependence: focus on withdrawal syndrome. Ann Pharm Fr. 2009;67(6):408-13. Abstract
Brett J, Murnion B. Management of benzodiazepine misuse and dependence. Aust Prescr. 2015;38(5):152-5. Article
Darker CD, Sweeney BP, Barry JM, et al. Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(5):CD009652. Abstract
Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD, Comer SD. Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med. 2013;125(4):115-30. Article
Higgitt AC, Lader MH, Fonagy P. Clinical Management of Benzodiazepine Dependence. BMJ. 1985;291:688-90. Article
Murphy SM, Tyrer P. A double-blind comparison of the effects of gradual withdrawal of lorazepam, diazepam and bromazepam in benzodiazepine dependence. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;158:511-6. Abstract
Weizman T, Gelkopf M, Melamed Y, et al. Treatment of benzodiazepine dependence in methadone maintenance treatment patients: a comparison of two therapeutic modalities and the role of psychiatric comorbidity. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2003;37(4):458-63. Abstract
Under – Treatment
Over – Treatment
Bias
Patient
Provider
Public
Economics of Treatment
Insurance
Legal / Regulatory
Treatment Barriers
Treatment Epidemiology
Treatment Principles
9.17 Treatment: Patient Placement |
9.18 Treatment: Harm Reduction |
9.19 Treatment: Withdrawal – See Benzodiazepine Withdrawal |
9.20 Treatment: Modalities |
Addiction Therapy
Darker CD, Sweeney BP, Barry JM, et al. Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;5:CD009652. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Darker CD, Sweeney BP, Barry JM, et al. Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;5:CD009652. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Contingency / Community Reinforcement Approach
Motivational Enhancement Therapy
Trigger Management
Coercion / Drug Court
Alternative / Complementary
Brief Intervention
Darker CD, Sweeney BP, Barry JM, et al. Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;5:CD009652. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Kurtz SP, Surratt HL, Buttram ME, et al. Interview as intervention: the case of young adult multidrug users in the club scene. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;44(3):301-8. Abstract
Controlled Use
Faith-Based
Mutual Help
12 Step
Tattersall ML, Hallstrom C. Self-help and benzodiazepine withdrawal. J Affect Disord. 1992;24(3):193-8. Abstract
12 Step Facilitation
Rational Recovery
Residential / Sober Living
9.21 Treatment: Modality Combinations |
9.22 Treatment: Modality v Modality Comparisons |
9.23 Treatment: Medications |
Denis C, Fatséas M, Lavie E, Auriacombe M. Pharmacological interventions for benzodiazepine mono-dependence management in outpatient settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD005194. Abstract
Note: THIS ARTICLE WAS WITHDRAWN
Sabioni P, Bertram J, Le Foll B. Off-label use of medications for treatment of benzodiazepine use disorder. Curr Pharm Design. 2016;(23): 3306-10. Abstract
General Principles
Liebrenz M, Boesch L, Stohler R, Caflisch C. Agonist substitution – a treatment alternative for high-dose benzodiazepine-dependent patients? Addiction. 2010;105(11):1870-4. Abstract
Amino Acids
L-Aspartate Mg
Hantouche EG, Guelfi JD, Comet D. alpha-beta L-aspartate magnesium in treatment of chronic benzodiazepine abuse: controlled and double-blind study versus placebo. Encephale. 1998;24(5):469-79. Abstract
Benzodiazepine Maintenance
Liebrenz M, Schneider M, Buadze A, et al. Attitudes towards a maintenance (-agonist) treatment approach in high-dose benzodiazepine-dependent patients: a qualitative study. Harm Reduct J. 2016;13:1. Article
Calcium Channel Agents
Gabapentin
Bramness JG, Sandvik P, Engeland A, Skurtveit S. Does Pregabalin (Lyrica(®) ) help patients reduce their use of benzodiazepines? A comparison with gabapentin using the Norwegian Prescription Database. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2010;107(5):883-6. Abstract
Mariani JJ, Malcolm RJ, Mamczur AK, et al. Pilot trial of gabapentin for the treatment of benzodiazepine abuse or dependence in methadone maintenance patients. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2016;42(3):333-40. Abstract
Pregabalin
Bobes J, Rubio G, Terán A, et al. Pregabalin for the discontinuation of long-term benzodiazepines use: an assessment of its effectiveness in daily clinical practice. Eur Psychiatry. 2012;27(4):301-7. Abstract
Bramness JG, Sandvik P, Engeland A, Skurtveit S. Does Pregabalin (Lyrica(®) ) help patients reduce their use of benzodiazepines? A comparison with gabapentin using the Norwegian Prescription Database. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2010;107(5):883-6. Abstract
Martinotti G, Lupi M, Sarchione F, et al. The potential of pregabalin in neurology, psychiatry and addiction: a qualitative overview. Curr Pharm Des. 2013;19(35):6367-74. Abstract
Martinotti G. Pregabalin in clinical psychiatry and addiction: pros and cons. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2012;21(9):1243-5. Abstract
Oulis P, Kalogerakou S, Anyfandi E, et al. Cognitive effects of pregabalin in the treatment of long-term benzodiazepine-use and dependence. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2014;29(3):224-9. Abstract
Oulis P, Konstantakopoulos G. Pregabalin in the treatment of alcohol and benzodiazepines dependence. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2010;16(1):45-50. Abstract
Oulis P, Masdrakis VG, Karakatsanis NA, et al. Pregabalin in the discontinuation of long-term benzodiazepine use: a case-series. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;23(2):110-2. Abstract
Oulis P, Konstantakopoulos G, Kouzoupis AV, et al. Pregabalin in the discontinuation of long-term benzodiazepines’ use. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2008;23(4):337-40. Abstract
Rubio G, Bobes J, Cervera G, et al. Effects of pregabalin on subjective sleep disturbance symptoms during withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use. Eur Addict Res. 2011;17:262–70. Abstract
Meletonergic Agents
Agomelatine
Müller H, Seifert F, Maler JM, et al. Agomelatine reduces craving in benzodiazepine addicts: a follow-up examination of three patients. Singapore Med J. 2012;53(11):e228-30. Article
Serotonin Agents
Trazodone
Funk S. Pharmacological treatment in alcohol-, drug- and benzodiazepine-dependent patients – the significance of trazodone. Neuropsychopharmacol Hung. 2013;15(2):85-93. Abstract
9.24 Treatment: Medication Combinations |
Drug – Drug Interactions
9.25 Treatment: Medication v Medication Comparisons |
9.26 Treatment: Medication v Modality Comparisons |
9.27 Treatment: Other Disease Comparisons |
9.28 Treatment: Relapse |
Mol AJ, Oude Voshaar RC, Gorgels WJ, et al. The role of craving in relapse after discontinuation of long-term benzodiazepine use. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(12):1894-900. Abstract
Voshaar RC, Gorgels WJ, Mol AJ, et al. Predictors of long-term benzodiazepine abstinence in participants of a randomized controlled benzodiazepine withdrawal program. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(7):445-52. Abstract
Risk Factors
Triggers
9.29 Treatment Outcomes |
Bergman H, Borg S, Engelbrektson K, Vikander B. Dependence on sedative-hypnotics: neuropsychological impairment, field dependence and clinical course in a 5-year follow-up study. Br J Addict. 1989;84(5):547-53. Abstract
Darker CD, Sweeney BP, Barry JM, et al. Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;5:CD009652. Abstract
Golombok S, Higgitt A, Fonagy P, et al. A follow-up study of patients treated for benzodiazepine dependence. Br J Med Psychol. 1987;60 ( Pt 2):141-9. Abstract
Joughin N, Tata P, Collins M, et al. In-patient withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use. Br J Addict. 1991;86(4):449-55. Abstract
Kan CC, Mickers FC, Barnhoorn D. Short- and long-term results of a systematic benzodiazepine discontinuation programme for psychiatric patients. Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2006;48(9):683-93. Abstract
Knoop H, Kan CC, Mickers FC, Barnhoorn D. Predicting the success of a benzodiazepine discontinuation program: myths or clinical wisdom? Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2006;48(9):695-703. Abstract
9.30 Non – Medical Use by Subpopulation |
Armed Services / Veterans
Gellad WF, Zhao X, Thorpe CT, et al. Overlapping buprenorphine, opioid, and benzodiazepine prescriptions among veterans dually enrolled in Department of Veterans Affairs and Medicare Part D. Subst Abus. 2017;38(1):22-25. Abstract
Addiction
Alcoholism
Ciraulo DA, Knapp CM, LoCastro J, et al. A benzodiazepine mood effect scale: reliability and validity determined for alcohol-dependent subjects and adults with a parental history of alcoholism. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2001;27(2):339-47. Abstract
Ciraulo DA, Barnhill JG, Ciraulo AM, et al. Alterations in pharmacodynamics of anxiolytics in abstinent alcoholic men: subjective responses, abuse liability, and electroencephalographic effects of alprazolam, diazepam, and buspirone. J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;37(1):64-73. Abstract
Ciraulo DA, Barnhill JG, Greenblatt DJ, et al. Abuse liability and clinical pharmacokinetics of alprazolam in alcoholic men. J Clin Psychiatry. 1988;49(9):333-7. Abstract
Cowley DS, Roy-Byrne PP, Godon C, et al. Response to diazepam in sons of alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1992;16(6):1057-63. Abstract
de Wit H, Doty P. Preference for ethanol and diazepam in light and moderate social drinkers: a within-subjects study. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1994;115(4):529-38. Abstract
Evans SM, Levin FR. The effects of alprazolam and buspirone in light and moderate female social drinkers. Behav Pharmacol. 2002;13(5-6):427-39. Abstract
Evans SM, Levin FR, Fischman MW. Increased sensitivity to alprazolam in females with a paternal history of alcoholism. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000;150(2):150-62. Abstract
Griffith JD, Jasinski DR, Casten GP, McKinney GR. Investigation of the abuse liability of buspirone in alcohol-dependent patients. Am J Med. 1986;80(3B):30-5. Abstract
Jaffe JH, Ciraulo DA, Nies A, et al. Abuse potential of halazepam and of diazepam in patients recently treated for acute alcohol withdrawal. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1983;34(5):623-30. Abstract
Lin SC, Chen CC, Chen YH, et al. Benzodiazepine prescription among patients with severe mental illness and co-occurring alcohol abuse / dependence in Taiwan. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2011;26(3):201-7. Abstract
Morel A, Grall-Bronnec M, Bulteau S, et al. Benzodiazepine dependence in subjects with alcohol use disorders: what prevalence? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016;15(10):1313-9. Abstract
Behavioral Addictions
Cannabis Addiction
Guillem E, Pelissolo A, Vorspan F, et al. Sociodemographic profiles, addictive and mental comorbidity in cannabis users in an outpatient specific setting. Encephale. 2009;35(3):226-33. Abstract
Nicotine Addiction
Opioid Addiction – See also Benzodiazepines + Opioids
Bramness JG, Kornør H. Benzodiazepine prescription for patients in opioid maintenance treatment in Norway. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;90(2-3):203-9. Abstract
Brands B, Blake J, Marsh DC, et al. The impact of benzodiazepine use on methadone maintenance treatment outcomes. J Addict Dis. 2008;27(3):37-48. Abstract
Brands B, Blake J, Marsh DC, et al. The impact of benzodiazepine use on methadone maintenance treatment outcomes. J Addict Dis. 2008;27(3):37-48. Abstract
Brazens JG, Kornør H. Benzodiazepine prescription for patients in opioid maintenance treatment in Norway. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;90(2-3):203-9. Abstract
Chen KW, Berger CC, Forde DP, et al. Benzodiazepine use and misuse among patients in a methadone program. BMC Psych. 2011;11:90. Article
Eiroa-Orosa FJ, Haasen C, Verthein U, et al. Benzodiazepine use among patients in heroin-assisted vs. methadone maintenance treatment: findings of the German randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;112(3):226-33. Abstract
Jones JD, Mogali S, Comer SD. Polydrug abuse: a review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;125(1-2):8-18. Article
Laqueille X, Launay C, Dervaux A, Kanit M. Abuse of alcohol and benzodiazepine during substitution therapy in heroin addicts: a review of the literature. Encephale. 2009;35(3):220-5. Abstract
Lund IO, Skurtveit S, Engeland A, et al. Prescription drug use among pregnant women in opioid maintenance treatment. Addiction. 2013;108(2):367-76. Abstract
Meiler A, Mino A, Chatton A, Broers B. Benzodiazepine use in a methadone maintenance programme: patient characteristics and the physician’s dilemma. Schweiz Arch Neurol Psychiatr 2005;156:310–7. Abstract
Ross J, Darke S. The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction. 2000;95(12):1785-93. Abstract
Schuman-Olivier Z, Hoeppner BB, Weiss RD, et al. Benzodiazepine use during buprenorphine treatment for opioid dependence: clinical and safety outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132(3):580-6. Article
Stimulant Addiction
Cocaine Addiction
Cancer
Cardiovascular Disease
Care Facilities
Cognitive Dysfunction
Criminal Justice
Elderly
Airagnes G, Pelissolo A, Lavallée M, et al. Benzodiazepine misuse in the elderly: risk factors, consequences, and management. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(10):89. Abstract
Brinkers M, Pfau G, Schilling T, Meyer F. The risks of perioperative addiction to benzodiazepines in the elderly: what the surgeon needs to know. Zentralbl Chir. 2016;141(1):75-81. Abstract
Fernandez L, Cassagne-Pinel C. Benzodiazepine addiction and symptoms of anxiety and depression in elderly subjects. Encephale. 2001;27(5):459-74. Abstract
Landreat MG, Vigneau CV, Hardouin JB, et al. Can we say that seniors are addicted to benzodiazepines? Subst Use Misuse. 2010;45(12):1988-99. Abstract
Nkogho Mengue PG, Abdous B, Berbiche D, et al. Impact of benzodiazepine dependence on the use of health services: study of the health of seniors. Can J Aging. 2013;32(1):21-30. Abstract
Oude Voshaar RC. Benzodiazepine addiction: a silent addiction among older people. Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr. 2012;43(3):137-47. Abstract
Savaskan E. Benzodiazepine dependency in the elderly: how to deal with it. Praxis (Bern 1994). 2016;105(11):637-41. Abstract
Simoni-Wastila L, Zuckerman IH, Singhal PK, et al. National estimates of exposure to prescription drugs with addiction potential in community-dwelling elders. Subst Abus. 2005;26(1):33-42. Abstract
Voyer P, Preville M, Roussel ME, et al. Factors associated with benzodiazepine dependence among community-dwelling seniors. J Community Health Nurs. 2009;26(3):101-13. Abstract
Voyer P, Roussel ME, Berbiche D, Préville M. Effectively detect dependence on benzodiazepines among community-dwelling seniors by asking only two questions. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2010;17(4):328-34. Abstract
Voyer P, McCubbin M, Cohen D, et al. Unconventional indicators of drug dependence among elderly long-term users of benzodiazepines. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2004;25(6):603-28. Abstract
Yang PJ, Lee YT, Tzeng SL, et al. Potentially inappropriate prescribing in disabled older patients with chronic diseases: a Screening Tool of Older Persons’ potentially inappropriate Prescriptions versus Beers 2012 Criteria. Med Princ Pract. 2015;24(6):565-70. Article
Yokoi Y, Misal M, Oh E, et al. Benzodiazepine discontinuation and patient outcome in a chronic geriatric medical / psychiatric unit: a retrospective chart review. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2014;14(2):388-94. Abstract
Ethnicity
African-American
Asian
Caucasian
Hispanic
Native American
Pacific Island
Health Care Providers
Hepatic Disease
HIV / AIDS
Ojha SP, Sigdel S, Meyer-Thompson HG, et al. ’South Asian cocktail’ – the concurrent use of opioids, benzodiazepines and antihistamines among injecting drug users in Nepal and associations with HIV risk behavior. Harm Reduct J. 2014;11:17. Article
LGBT
Men
Simoni-Wastila L, Ritter G, Strickler G. Gender and other factors associated with the nonmedical use of abusable prescription drugs. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(1):1-23. Abstract
Pain
See also: Benzodiazepine Pain Benzodiazepine + Opioids
Cunningham JL, Craner JR, Evans MM, Hooten WM. Benzodiazepine use in patients with chronic pain in an interdisciplinary pain rehabilitation program. J Pain Res. 2017;10:311-317. Article
Nielsen S, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, et al. Benzodiazepine use among chronic pain patients prescribed opioids: associations with pain, physical and mental health, and health service utilization. Pain Med. 2015;16(2):356-66.
Palliative Care – End of Life
Pediatric
Guerlais M, Grall-Bronnec M, Feuillet F, et al. Dependence on prescription benzodiazepines and Z-drugs among young to middle-aged patients in France. Subst Use Misuse. 2015;50(3):320-7. Abstract
Kurtz SP, Buttram ME, Surratt HL. Benzodiazepine dependence among young adult participants in the club scene who use drugs. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2017;49(1):39-46. Abstract
Kurtz SP, Surratt HL, Levi-Minzi MA, Mooss A. Benzodiazepine dependence among multidrug users in the club scene. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;119(1-2):99-105. Abstract
McCabe SE, West BT. Medical and nonmedical use of prescription benzodiazepine anxiolytics among US high school seniors. Addict Behav. 2014;39(5):959-64. Abstract
McCabe SE, Boyd CJ, Young A. Medical and nonmedical use of prescription drugs among secondary school students. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40(1):76-83. Article
McCabe SE. Correlates of nonmedical use of prescription benzodiazepine anxiolytics: results from a national survey of U.S. college students. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;79(1):53-62. Abstract
Rigg KK, Ford JA. The misuse of benzodiazepines among adolescents: psychosocial risk factors in a national sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;137:137-42. Abstract
Young AM, Glover N, Havens JR. Nonmedical use of prescription medications among adolescents in the United States: a systematic review. J Adolesc Health. 2012;51(1):6-17. Abstract
Psychiatric Disease
Brunette MF, Noordsy DL, Xie H, Drake RE. Benzodiazepine use and abuse among patients with severe mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorders. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(10):1395-401. Abstract
Clark RE, Samnaliev M, McGovern MP. Treatment for co-occurring mental and substance use disorders in five state Medicaid programs. Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58(7):942-8. Abstract
Clark RE, Xie H, Brunette MF. Benzodiazepine prescription practices and substance abuse in persons with severe mental illness. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(2):151-5. Abstract
Goldsmith RJ, Garlapati V. Behavioral interventions for dual-diagnosis patients. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004;27(4):709-25. Abstract
Kan CC, Mickers FC, Barnhoorn D. Short- and long-term results of a systematic benzodiazepine discontinuation programme for psychiatric patients. Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2006;48(9):683-93. Abstract
Lin SC, Chen CC, Chen YH, et al. Benzodiazepine prescription among patients with severe mental illness and co-occurring alcohol abuse / dependence in Taiwan. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2011;26(3):201-7. Abstract
Anxiety
BPD
Depression
Psychosis
Trauma
Pulmonary Disease
Renal Disease
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Sleep Apnea
Surgery
Brinkers M, Pfau G, Schilling T, Meyer F. The risks of perioperative addiction to benzodiazepines in the elderly: what the surgeon needs to know. Zentralbl Chir. 2016;141(1):75-81. Abstract
Schneemilch C, Brinkers M. The addicted patient in anaesthesia – benzodiazepine dependence. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther. 2015;50(6):416-23. Abstract
Tietz C, Strang CM. The addicted patient in anaesthesia – benzodiazepine dependence. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther. 2015;50(6):426-33. Abstract
Swallowing Disorders
Women
Simoni-Wastila L, Ritter G, Strickler G. Gender and other factors associated with the nonmedical use of abusable prescription drugs. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(1):1-23. Abstract
Simoni-Wastila L. The use of abusable prescription drugs: the role of gender. J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 2000;9(3):289-97. Abstract
Perinatal
Lund IO, Skurtveit S, Engeland A, et al. Prescription drug use among pregnant women in opioid maintenance treatment. Addiction. 2013;108(2):367-76. Abstract
Nursing
