4 Benzodiazepines
Table of Contents
4.1 Pharmaceutical Industry: Prescribing Information. 1
4.4 Perspectives / Advocacy. 14
4.9 Indications: Potential / Historical 23
4.10 Benzodiazepines Use in Subpopulations. 23
See Also
Benzodiazepine Effects
Benzodiazepine Non-Medical Use
Benzodiazepine Pharmacology – Neuropharmacology
Benzodiazepine Withdrawal
Benzodiazepines + Opioids
Benzodiazepines + Opioids Overdose
4.1 Pharmaceutical Industry: Prescribing Information |
Alprazolam
Niravam Xanax Xanax XR
Prescribing Information: Xanax
Approved on 4 week study
Chlordiazepoxide
Librium
Prescribing Information: Chlordiazepoxide
Discovered 1957, marketed 1960
Clobazam
Onfi
Chlorazepate
Tranxene Tranxene SD Tranxene-T-Tab
Prescribing Information: Chlorazepate
Clonazepam
Klonopin Klonopin wafers
Prescribing Information: Klonopin
Approved on 9 week & 6 week trials in panic disorder
Diazepam
Prescribing Information: Valium
Launched in 1963
Estazolam
Prosom
Prescribing Information: Estazolam
Flurazepam
Dalmane
Prescribing Information: Dalmane
Reference in Prescribing Information:
Greenblatt DJ, Divoll M, Harmatz JS, et al. Kinetics and clinical effects of flurazepam in young and elderly noninsomniacs. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1981;276(30):475-86. Abstract
Lorazepam
Ativan
Prescribing Information: Ativan
References in Prescribing Information:
Alps BJ, Harry TVA, Southgate PJ. The pharmacology of lorazepam, a broad-spectrum tranquilizer. Curr Med Res Opin. 1975;1:239-61. Link
Ban TA. ECEDEU Reports. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1973;9:69-71.
Brunaud M, Rocand J. Une nouvelle benzodiazepine, le lorazepam mise au point pharmacologique. Agressologie. 1972;13:363-75. Link
Caille G, Lacasse Y, Vezina M, et al. A novel route for benzodiazepine administration: a sublingual formulation of lorazepam. In: Manzo L, et al., eds. Advances in neurotoxicology. Pergamon Press, 1980.
Calixto N, De Costa Maia JA. Influence of lorazepam on ocular pressure in patients with glaucoma. Curr Ther Res. 1975;17:156-60. Link
Coates H. Lorazepam and diazepam in severe neurotic illness. Curr Med Res Opin. 1972;1:74-7. Link
Conner JT, Parson N, Katz RL, et al. Evaluation of lorazepam and pentobarbital as surgical premedicants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;19:24-29. Abstract
De Buck R. Clinical experience with lorazepam in the treatment of neurotic patients. Curr Med Res Opin. 1973; 1:291-5. Link
Denaut M, Yernault JC, De Coster A. Double blind comparison of the respiratory effects of parenteral lorazepam and diazepam in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Curr Med Res Opin. 1975;2:611-5. Abstract
Dundee JW, George KA. Relative amnesic actions of diazepam, flunitrazepam and lorazepam in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1977;4:45-50. Article
Dundee JW, Johnston HML, Gray RC. Lorazepam as a sedative-amnesic in an intensive care unit. Curr Med Res Opin. 1976;4:290-5. Abstract
Eaves D, Jain VK, Swinson RP. A double blind controlled trial of lorazepam and diazepam in the treatment of anxiety. Curr Med Res Opin. 1973;1:265-8. Link
Elliot HW. Metabolism of lorazepam. Br J Anaesth. 1976;48:1017-23. Abstract
Gale G, Galloon S. Lorazepam as a premedication. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1976; 23:22-8. Abstract
Galloon S, Gale GD, Lancee WJ. Comparison of lorazepam and diazepam as premedicants. Br J Anaesth. 1977;49:1256-69. Abstract
Gasser CJ, Kaufman RD, Bellville WJ. Respiratory effects of lorazepam, pentobarbital and pentazocine. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1975;18:170-4. Abstract
Gluckman MI. Pharmacology of 7-chloro-5-(o-chlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one (lorazepam; WY-4036). Arzneimittelforsch. 1971;21:1049-55. Link
Goldberg HL, Finnerty RJ, Cole JO. A study of anti-anxiety effects of WY-4036. Compr Psychiatry. 1974;15:95-200. Link
Greenblatt DJ, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of lorazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;20:329-39. Abstract
Haider I. Evaluation of a new tranquilizer – WY-4036 in the treatment of anxiety. Br J Psychiatry. 1971;119:597-8. Link
Haider I. A comparative trial of lorazepam and diazepam. Brit J Psychiatry. 1971;119:599-600. Link
Hedges A, Turner P, Harry TVA. Preliminary studies on central effects of lorazepam a new benzodiazepine. J Clin Pharmacol. 1971;2:423-7. Link
Heisterkamp DV, Cohen PJ. The effect of intravenous premedication with lorazepam (Ativan), pentobarbitone or diazepam on recall. Br J Anaesth. 1975;47:79-81. Abstract
Knapp RB, Fierro L. Evaluation of the cardiopulmonary safety and effects of lorazepam as a premedicant. Anesth Analg. 1974;53:122-4. Link
Knowles JA, Comer WH, Ruelius HW. Disposition of 7-chloro-5-(o- chlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one (lorazepam) in humans. Arzneimittelforsch. 1971;21:1055-9. Link
Nanivadekar AS, Wig NN, Khorana AB, et al. A multicenter investigation of lorazepam in anxiety neurosis. Curr Ther Res. 1973;15:432-9. Link
Owen G, Hatfield GK, Pollock JJ, et al. Toxicity studies of lorazepam, a new benzodiazepine, in animals. Arzneimittelforsch. 1971;21:1065-73. Link
Rickels K, Case WG, Csanalosi I, et al. Lorazepam in anxiety: a controlled study. J Int Med Res. 1974;2:20-25.
Saxena BM, Singh AN, Nelson HL, Mahutte G. Clinical experience with oral and parenteral lorazepam. Curr Ther Res. 1979;25:1-15.
Schillings RT, Shader SR, Ruelius HW. Urinary Metabolites of 7-chloro-5- (ochlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one (lorazepam) in humans and four animal species. Arzneimittelforsch. 1971;21:1059-65.
Singh AN, Saxena B. A Comparison of lorazepam, diazepam and placebo in the treatment of anxiety states. Curr Ther Res. 1974;16:149-62. Link
Stein L, Berger BD. Psychopharmacology of 7-chloro-5-(o-chlorophenyl)-1, 3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one (lorazepam) in squirrel, monkey and rat. Arzneimittelforsch. 1971;21:1072-8. Link
Midazolam
Versed
Prescribing Information: Midazolam
Oxazepam
Serax
Prescribing Information: Oxazepam
Temazepam
Restoril
Prescribing Information: Restoril
Approved on the basis of a 2 week study.
Triazolam
Halcion
Prescribing Information: Halcion
4.2 Reviews |
Expert Opinion
Ashton H. Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. When and what to use. Drugs.1994;48(1):25-40. Abstract
Dell’osso B, Lader M. Do benzodiazepines still deserve a major role in the treatment of psychiatric disorders? A critical reappraisal. Eur Psychiatry. 2013;28(1):7-20. Abstract
Goffinet S. Mechanism of action, indications and abuse of benzodiazepine anxiolytic drugs. Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 1993;151(1):47-63. Abstract
Gorgels WJ, Oude Voshaar RC, Mol AJ, et al. Long-term use of benzodiazepines. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2001(28):1342-6. Abstract
Janhsen K, Roser P, Hoffmann K. The problems of long-term treatment with benzodiazepines and related substances. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(1-2):1-7. Article
Krystal JH, Stossel S, Krystal AD. Restricting benzodiazepines to short-term prescription. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(7):734-5. Link
Lader M. Benzodiazepine harm: how can it be reduced? Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;77(2):295-301. Article
Lader M. Benzodiazepines revisited – will we ever learn? Addiction. 2011;106(12):2086-109. Link
Lader M. Effectiveness of benzodiazepines: do they work or not? Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8(8):1189-91. Link
Lader MH. Limitations on the use of benzodiazepines in anxiety and insomnia: are they justified? Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1999;9 Suppl 6:S399-405. Abstract
Leonard BE. Commentary on the mode of action of benzodiazepines. J Psychiatr Res. 1993;27 Suppl 1:193-207. Abstract
Moore N, Pariente A, Bégaud B. Why are benzodiazepines not yet controlled substances? JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(2):110-1. Link
North DA, McAvoy BR, Powell AM. Benzodiazepine use in general practice – is it a problem? N Z Med J. 1992;105(938):287-9. Abstract
Olfson M, King M, Schoenbaum M. The popularity of benzodiazepines, their advantages, and inadequate pharmacological alternatives-reply. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(6):624. Link
Parhami I, Massey J, Trimzi I, et al. Risks associated with co-prescribing opioids and benzodiazepines and Delaware’s Prescription Drug Monitoring Program. Del Med J. 2015;87(9):270-4. Link
Preskorn SH. A way of conceptualizing benzodiazepines to guide clinical use. J Psychiatr Pract. 2015;21(6):436-41. Abstract
Rivas-Vazquez, RA. Benzodiazepines in contemporary clinical practice. Prof Psychol: Res Pract. 2003;34(3):324-8. Abstract
Rickels K. Should benzodiazepines be replaced by antidepressants in the treatment of anxiety disorders? Fact or fiction? Psychother Psychosom. 2013;82(6):351-2. Article
Starcevic V. The popularity of benzodiazepines, their advantages, and inadequate pharmacological alternatives. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(6):623-4. Link
Uhlenhuth EH, DeWit H, Balter MB, et al. Risks and benefits of long-term benzodiazepine use. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1988;8(3):161-7. Abstract
Wise J. NICE calls for safer use of controlled drugs. BMJ. 2016;353:i2137. Link
Guidelines
[No authors listed] Systematic review of the benzodiazepines. Guidelines for data sheets on diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, medazepam, clorazepate, lorazepam, oxazepam, temazepam, triazolam, nitrazepam, and flurazepam. Committee on the Review of Medicines. Br Med J. 1980;280(6218):910-2. Article
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
American Academy of Neurology
American Academy of Neurology 2013 Evidence-Based Guideline: Treatment of Tardive Syndromes
American Academy of Neurology 2005 Treatment of Essential Tremor
American Academy of Sleep Medicine
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine 2012 Analgesia and Anesthesia for the Breastfeeding Mother
American College of Emergency Physicians
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecology
ACOG 2008 Use of Psychiatric Medications during Pregnancy and Lactation
American College of Physicians
American College of Physicians 2016 Management of Chronic Insomnia Disorder in Adults
American Geriatrics Society
American Geriatrics Society: Beers Criteria Resource List
American Medical Directors Association
American Pain Society
American Pain Society 2014 Methadone Safety: A Clinical Practice Guideline
American Psychiatric Association
American Society of Anesthesiologists
American Society of Anesthesiologists 2016 Practice Guidelines for Obstetric Anesthesia
American Society of Clinical Oncology
American Society of Clinical Oncology 2016 Management of Chronic Pain in Survivors of Adult Cancers
American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP)
Association of periOperative Registered Nurses
Australia
Canadian Society for Clinical Pharmacology
Nelson J, Chouinard G. Guidelines for the clinical use of benzodiazepines: pharmacokinetics, dependency, rebound and withdrawal. Canadian Society for Clinical Pharmacology. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;6(2):69-83. Abstract
Center for Disease Control
CDC 2016 CDC guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain – United States, 2016
Colorado
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2014 Low Back Pain Medical Treatment Guidelines
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2014 Cervical Spine Injury Medical Treatment Guidelines
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2012 Traumatic Brain Injury Medical Treatment Guidelines
Galician Health Technology Assessment Agency
Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing
Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement
Kaiser Permanente Care Management Institute
Kaiser Permanente Care Management Institute 2012 Diagnosis and Treatment of Depression in Adults
National Guideline Alliance
National Guideline Alliance 2016 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management
National Guideline Alliance 2013 Social Anxiety Disorder: Recognition, Assessment and Treatment
National Guideline Center
National Guideline Center 2016 Major Trauma: Assessment and Initial Management
National Guideline Center 2016 Spinal Injury: Assessment and Initial Management
National Guideline Center 2016 Fractures (Non-Complex): Assessment and Management
National Guideline Center 2015 Care of Dying Adults in the Last Days of Life
Neurocritical Care Society
Neurocritical Care Society 2004 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Status Epilepticus
New York
New York State Department of Health 2012 Perioperative Management of HIV-Infected Patients
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania 2016 Safe Prescribing of Benzodiazepines for Acute Anxiety and Insomnia
Society of Critical Care Medicine
United Kingdom
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance. Generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) in adults: management in primary, secondary and community care. January 2011. Document
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance. The Epilepsies: The Diagnosis and Management of the Epilepsies in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care: Pharmacological Update of Clinical Guideline 20. 2012. Document
Veterans Administration / Department of Defense
VA / DOD 2015 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders
Washington State
World Health Organization
World Health Organization 2014 Community Management of Opioid Overdose
Meta – Analyses
Reviews (see below for reviews for specific domains)
[No authors listed] Systematic review of the benzodiazepines. Guidelines for data sheets on diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, medazepam, clorazepate, lorazepam, oxazepam, temazepam, triazolam, nitrazepam, and flurazepam. Committee on the Review of Medicines. Br Med J. 1980;280(6218):910-2. Article
Chouinard G. Issues in the clinical use of benzodiazepines: potency, withdrawal, and rebound. J Clin Psychiatry.2004;65 Suppl 5:7-12. Abstract
Crowe SF, Barker MJ. Benzodiazepines. In: Neuropsychology and Substance Use: State-of-the-Art and Future Directions. Kalechstein A, van Gorp WG, eds. New York, London: Taylor and Francis, 2007. Link
Einarson TR. Systematic review of the benzodiazepines. Br Med J. 1980;281(6246):1009. Abstract
Goffinet S. Mechanism of action, indications and abuse of benzodiazepine anxiolytic drugs. Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 1993;151(1):47-63. Abstract
Griffin CE, Kaye AM, Bueno FR, Kaye AD. Benzodiazepine pharmacology and central nervous system-mediated effects. Ochsner J. 2013;13(2):214-23. Article
Lader M. Benzodiazepines revisited – will we ever learn? Addiction. 2011;106(12):2086-109. Abstract
Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ. The use of benzodiazepines in clinical practice. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1981;11 Suppl 1:5S-9S. Article
Smith AJ, Tett SE. Improving the use of benzodiazepines – is it possible? A non-systematic review of interventions tried in the last 20 years. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:321. Article
4.3 History |
Lader M, Petursson H .Rational use of anxiolytic/sedative drugs. Drugs. 1983;25(5):514-28. Abstract
Conner JT, Parson N, Katz RL, et al. Evaluation of lorazepam and pentobarbital as surgical premedicants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;19:24-29. Abstract
Marks J. The benzodiazepines: use, overuse, misuse, abuse. Lancaster: MTP. 1978. Book Link
Rosenbaum JF. Attitudes toward benzodiazepines over the years. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66 Suppl 2:4-8. Abstract
Use and Misuse of Benzodiazepines. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on labor and Human Resources of the US Senate: 1st session on the use and misuse of Valium, Librium and other minor tranquilizers. September 10, 1979. US Government Printing Office: 1980. Document
4.4 Perspectives / Advocacy |
Books
Abramson J. Overdosed America: the Broken Promise of American Medicine. Book Link
Angell M. The Truth About the Drug Companies: How they Deceive Us and what to do About It. Book Link
Goldacre B. Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients. Book Link
Gotzsche P. Deadly Medicines and Organized Crime: How big Pharma has Corrupted Healthcare. Book Link
Gotzsche P. Deadly Psychiatry and Organized Denial. Book Link
Healy D. Pharmageddon. Book Link
Lembke A. Drug Dealer, MD. Book Link
Olson G. Confessions of an Rx Drug Pusher. Book Link
Trickett S. Coming off Tranquilizers and Sleeping Pills – A Withdrawal Plan That Really Works. (1991) Book Link
Trickett S. Free Yourself from Tranquilizers and Sleeping Pills (1997) Book Link
Whitaker R. Anatomy of an Illness: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America. Book Link
Whitaker R. Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill. Book Link
Whitaker R. Psychiatry Under the Influence: Institutional Corruption, Social Injury, and Prescriptions for Reform. Book Link
Websites: Multi-Disciplinary
Center for the Study of Empathetic Therapy, Education & Living
Critical Think Rx Psychotropic meds & children / adolescents for non-prescribers.
Foundation for Excellence in Mental Health Care
Greater Oregon Behavioral Health, Inc.
Heart & Soul of Change Client directed therapy
Lader-Ashton.org Information, advocacy
National Association of State Mental Health Program DirectorsNational Council for Behavioral Health
National Institute of Mental Health NIMH: Anxiety Disorders NIMH: PTSD NIMH: Meds
Websites: Legal
Psych Rights Litigation against forced drugging
Websites for Patients
Action Against Medical Accidents
All-Party Parlimetary Group on Involuntary Tranquioser Addiction
Beating Benzos Helping Patients in Withdrawal
Behavioral Health Treatment Services Locator: SAMHSA
Benzodiazepine Awareness Network International
Benzodiazepine Wirhdrawal: Jaocelyn Excellent educational overview
Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Nutritional Support: Jocelyn
Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Support Group
Benzo Support.org Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Support: Geraldine Burns site
Breggin: Psychiatric Drug Facts – Benzodiazepine Page
Council for Evidence-Based Psychiatry
Facebook Group: Protracted Withdrawal Syndrome
Foundation for Excellence in Mental Health Care
Hardman H. Benzodiazepines: As Prescribed trailer
International Society for Ethical Psychology & Psychiatry ISEPP: Facebook
Mad in America Mad: Benzodiasepines
Maine Benzodiazepine Study Group 2011 Symposium on Safe Medicine
Point of Return Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Support
Psych Rights Litigation against forced drugging
Recovery Road Antidepressant & Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Support
The Sedated Society: Causes and Harms of our Psychaiatric Drug Epidemic. James Davies, ed. 2017
Twitter: #benzo #ptsd #helpforheroes
4.5 Animal Studies |
Shannon HE, Holtzman SG, Davis DC. Interactions between narcotic analgesics and benzodiazepine derivatives on behavior in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976;199(2):389-99. Abstract
4.6 Epidemiology of Use |
Berney P, Halperin D, Tango R, et al. A major change of prescribing pattern in absence of adequate evidence: benzodiazepines versus newer antidepressants in anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2008;41(3):39-47. Abstract
Gallagher P, Barry P, O’Mahony D. Inappropriate prescribing in the elderly. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2007;32(2):113-21. Abstract
Liebrenz M, Schneider M, Buadze A, et al. High-dose benzodiazepine dependence: a qualitative study of patients’ perceptions on initiation, reasons for use, and obtainment. PLoS One. 2015;10(11):e0142057. Article
Asia
Fang SY, Chen CY, Chang IS, et al. Predictors of the incidence and discontinuation of long-term use of benzodiazepines: a population-based study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;104(1-2):140-6. Abstract
Australia
Darke S, Ross J, Teesson M, Lynskey M. Health service utilization and benzodiazepine use among heroin users: findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS). Addiction. 2003;98(8):1129-35. Abstract
Windle A, Elliot E, Duszynski K, Moore V. Benzodiazepine prescribing in elderly Australian general practice patients. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2007;31(4):379-81. Abstract
Canada
Cunningham CM, Hanley GE, Morgan S. Patterns in the use of benzodiazepines in British Columbia: examining the impact of increasing research and guideline cautions against long-term use. Health Policy. 2010;97(2-3):122-129. Abstract
Neutel CI. The epidemiology of long-term benzodiazepine use. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005;17(3):189-97. Abstract
Neutel CI, Walop W, Patten SB. Can continuing benzodiazepine use be predicted? Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;10(4):202-6. Abstract
Rojas-Fernandez CH, Carver D, Tonks R. Population trends in the prevalence of benzodiazepine use in the older population of Nova Scotia: A cause for concern? Can J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;6(3):149-56. Abstract
Tu K, Mamdani MM, Hux JE, Tu JB. Progressive trends in the prevalence of benzodiazepine prescribing in older people in Ontario, Canada. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49(10):1341-5. Abstract
Europe
Ashton H, Golding JF. Tranquilizers: prevalence, predictors and possible consequences. Data from a large United Kingdom survey. Br J Addict. 1989;84(5):541-6. Abstract
Blennow G, Romelsjö A, Leifman H, et al. Sedatives and hypnotics in Stockholm: social factors and kinds of use. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(2):242-6. Article
Colell E, Sánchez-Niubò A, Domingo-Salvany A, et al. Prevalence of the use of hypnotics and sedatives among the working population and associated work-related stress factors. Gac Sanit. 2014;28(5):369-75. Abstract
Haider SI, Johnell K, Weitoft GR, et al. The influence of educational level on polypharmacy and inappropriate drug use: a register-based study of more than 600,000 older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57(1):62-9. Abstract
Hoffmann F, Schmiemann G, Windt R. Perceptions of GPs and community pharmacists on hypnotic prescribing on private prescriptions. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2014;139(22):1153-8. Abstract
Huerta C, Abbing-Karahagopian V, Requena G, et al. Exposure to benzodiazepines (anxiolytics, hypnotics and related drugs) in seven European electronic healthcare databases: a cross-national descriptive study from the PROTECT-EU Project. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2016;25 Suppl 1:56-65. Abstract
Isacson D. Long-term benzodiazepine use: factors of importance and the development of individual use patterns over time – a 13-year follow-up in a Swedish community. Soc Sci Med. 1997;44(12):1871-80. Abstract
Järbrink K, Carlsten A, Frederiksen SO. Swedish physicians’ inclination to prescribe benzodiazepines: differences between regions and characteristics of the prescriber. Scand J Public Health. 1999;27(1):22-9. Abstract
Jeantaud I, Benzodiazepine consumption: survey of community pharmacies in Aquitaine. Therapie. 2001;56(4):415-9. Abstract
Johnell K, Weitoft GR, Fastbom J. Sex differences in inappropriate drug use: a register-based study of over 600,000 older people. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(7):1233-8. Abstract
Kurko TA, Saastamoinen LK, Tähkäpää S, et al. Long-term use of benzodiazepines: definitions, prevalence and usage patterns – a systematic review of register-based studies. Eur Psychiatry. 2015;30(8):1037-47. Abstract
Magrini N, Vaccheri A, Parma E, et al. Use of benzodiazepines in the Italian general population: prevalence, pattern of use and risk factors for use. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;50(1-2):19-25. Abstract
Manthey L, Giltay EJ, van Veen T, et al. Determinants of initiated and continued benzodiazepine use in the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;31(6):774-9. Abstract
Petitjean S, Ladewig D, Meier CR, et al. Benzodiazepine prescribing to the Swiss adult population: results from a national survey of community pharmacies. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;22(5):292-8. Abstract
Rosman S, Le Vaillant M, Pelletier-Fleury N. Gaining insight into benzodiazepine prescribing in General Practice in France: a data-based study. BMC Fam Pract. 2011;12:28. Article
Sonnenberg CM, Bierman EJM, Deeg DJH, et al. Ten-year trends in benzodiazepine use in the Dutch population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(2):293-301. Article
Van der Heyden JHA, Gisle L, Hesse E, et al. Gender differences in the use of anxiolytics and antidepressants: a population based study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2009;18(11):1101-10. Abstract
van der Waals FW, Mohrs J, Foets M. Sex differences among recipients of benzodiazepines in Dutch general practice. BMJ. 1993;307(6900):363-6. Article
van Hulten R, Isacson D, Bakker A, Leufkens HG. Comparing patterns of long-term benzodiazepine use between a Dutch and a Swedish community. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2003;12(1):49-53. Abstract
Velert Vila J, Velert Vila Mdel M, Salar Ibáñez L, et al. Suitability of the use of benzodiazepines prescribed by the pharmacist in the elderly. A doctor-pharmacist collaboration study. Aten Primaria. 2012;44(7):402-10. Abstract
Veronese A, Garatti M, Cipriani A, Barbui C. Benzodiazepine use in the real world of psychiatric practice: low-dose, long-term drug taking and low rates of treatment discontinuation. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63(9):867-73. Abstract
Middle East
Naja WJ, Pelissolo A, Haddad RS, et al. A general population survey on patterns of benzodiazepine use and dependence in Lebanon. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102(6):429-31. Abstract
United States
Buck MD, Atreja A, Brunker CP, et al. Potentially inappropriate medication prescribing in outpatient practices: prevalence and patient characteristics based on electronic health records. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2009;7(2):84-92. Abstract
Cannon KT, Choi MM, Zuniga MA. Potentially inappropriate medication use in elderly patients receiving home health care: a retrospective data analysis. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2006;4(2):134-43. Abstract
Gorevski E, Bian B, Kelton CML, et al. Utilization, spending, and price trends for benzodiazepines in the US Medicaid program: 1991-2009. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(4):503-12. Abstract
Kaufmann CN, Spira AP, Alexander GC, et al. Trends in prescribing of sedative-hypnotic medications in the USA: 1993-2010. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2016;25(6):637-45. Abstract
McGerald G, Dvorkin R, Levy D, et al. Prescriptions for schedule II opioids and benzodiazepines increase after the introduction of computer-generated prescriptions. Acad Emerg Med. 2009;16(6):508-12. Article
Moore TJ, Mattison DR. Adult Utilization of Psychiatric Drugs and Differences by Sex, Age, and Race. JAMA Intern Med. Published online December 12, 2016. Abstract
Must DT, Kales HC, Wiechers IR, et al. No end in sight: benzodiazepine use in older adults in the United States. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016 Nov 23. [Epub online]. Abstract
National Survey of Drug Use and Health: US Behavioral Health Trends. 2014.
Olfson M, King M, Schoenbaum M. Benzodiazepine use in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(2):136-42. Abstract
Paulozzi LJ, Stickler GK, Kreiner PW, et al. Controlled substance prescribing patterns – Prescription Behavior Surveillance System, Eight States, 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2015;64(9):1-14. Abstract
Barriers to Use
4.7 Ethics |
Bursztajn, HJ, Brodsky A. Ethical and legal dimensions of benzodiazepine prescription: a commentary. Psych Annals. 1998;28(3):121-8. Abstract
Abramson J. Overdosed America: the Broken Promise of American Medicine. Book Link
Angell M. The Truth About the Drug Companies: How they Deceive Us and what to do About It. Book Link
Bursztajn, HJ, Brodsky A. Ethical and legal dimensions of benzodiazepine prescription: a commentary. Psych Annals. 1998;28(3):121-8. Abstract
Goldacre B. Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients. Book Link
Gotzsche P. Deadly Medicines and Organized Crime: How big Pharma has Corrupted Healthcare. Book Link
Gotzsche P. Deadly Psychiatry and Organized Denial. Book Link
Healy D. Pharmageddon. Book Link
Lembke A. Drug Dealer, MD. Book Link
Olson G. Confessions of an Rx Drug Pusher. Book Link
Whitaker R. Anatomy of an Illness: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing pics of Mental Illness in America. Book Link
Whitaker R. Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill. Book Link
Whitaker R. Psychiatry Under the Influence: Institutional Corruption, Social Injury, and Prescriptions for Reform. Book Link
4.8 Detection of Use |
Heit HA, Gourlay DL, Using urine drug testing to support healthy boundaries in clinical care. J Opioid Manag. 2015;11(1):7-12. Abstract
Morasco BJ, Krebs EE, Cavanagh R, et al. Treatment changes following aberrant urine drug test results for patients prescribed chronic opioid therapy. J Opioid Manag. 2015;11(1):45-51. Abstract
Reisfield GM, Goldberger BA, Bertholf RL. Choosing the right laboratory: a review of clinical and forensic toxicology services for urine drug testing in pain management. J Opioid Manag. 2015;11(1):37-44. Abstract
Blood
Gunnar T, Ariniemi K, Lillsunde P. Determination of 14 benzodiazepines and hydroxy metabolites, zaleplon and zolpidem as tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives compared with other common silylating reagents in whole blood by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2005;818(2):175-89. Abstract
Gunnar T, Mykkänen S, Ariniemi K, Lillsunde P. Validated semiquantitative/quantitative screening of 51 drugs in whole blood as silylated derivatives by gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring mass spectrometry and gas chromatography electron capture detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2004;806(2):205-19. Abstract
Oral Fluid
Badawi N, Simonsen KW, Steentoft A,, et al. Simultaneous screening and quantification of 29 drugs of abuse in oral fluid by solid-phase extraction and ultraperformance LC-MS/MS. Clin Chem. 2009; 55:2004-18. Article
Bosker WM, Huestis MA. Oral fluid testing for drugs of abuse. Clin Chem. 2009;55(11):1910-31. Article
Conermann T, Gosalia AR, Kabazie AJ, et al. Utility of oral fluid in compliance monitoring of opioid medications. Pain Phys. 2014;17(1):63-70. Article
Crouch DJ. Oral fluid collection: The neglected variable in oral fluid testing. Forensic Sci Int. 2005;150(2-3):165-73. Abstract
Heltsley R, Depress A, Black DL, et al. Oral fluid drug testing of chronic pain patients. Comparison of paired oral fluid and urine specimens. J Anal Tox. 2012;36(2):75-80. Abstract
Øiestad EL, Øiestad ÅM, Gjelstad A, Karinen R. Oral fluid drug analysis in the age of new psychoactive substances. Bioanalysis. 2016;8(7):691-710. Abstract
Pehrsson A, Gunnar T, Engblom C, et al. Roadside oral fluid testing: Comparison of the results of Drugwipe 5 and Drugwipe Benzodiazepines on-site tests with laboratory confirmation results of oral fluid and whole blood. Forensic Sci Int. 2008;175(2-3):140-8. Abstract
Urine
Darragh et al. KIMS, CEDIA, HS-CEDIA Immunoassays inadequately sensitive for detection of benzodiazepines in urine from patients treated for chronic pain. Pain Phys. 2014;17:359-66. Abstract
DePriest AZ, Black DL, Robert TA. Immunoassay in healthcare testing applications. J Opioid Manag. 2015;11(1):13-25. Abstract
Fraser AD, Meatherall R. Comparative evaluation of five immunoassays for the analysis of alprazolam and triazolam metabolites in urine: effect of lowering the screening and GC-MS cut-off values. J Anal Toxicol. 1996;20(4):217-23. Abstract
Goulay DL, Heit HA, Coplan YH, et al. Urine drug testing in clinical practice. 2015. PharmaCon Corp. Monograph
Gu JK, Xia R, Zhong DF, Sun L. Identification of estazolam, alprazolam and triazolam in human urine by LC/MS. Yao Xue Xue Bao. 2002;37(2):138-40. Abstract
Komiyama Y. Drug testing with use of POCT. Rinsho Byori. 2012;60(12):1167-74. Abstract
Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Wargo BW, Fellows B. Comparative evaluation of the accuracy of benzodiazepine testing in chronic pain patients utilizing immunoassay with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) of urine drug testing. Pain Physician. 2011;14:259-70. Article
Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Wargo BW, et al. Protocol for accuracy of point of care (POC) or in-office urine drug testing (immunoassay) in chronic pain patients: a prospective analysis of immunoassay and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectometry (LC/MS/MS). Pain Physician. 2010;13(1):E1-E22. Article
Melanson SE, Ptolemy AS, Wasan AD. Optimizing urine drug testing for monitoring medication compliance in pain management. Pain Med. 2013;14(12):1813-20. Link
Mikel C, Pesce AJ, Rosenthal M, West C. Therapeutic monitoring of benzodiazepines in the management of pain: current limitations of point of care immunoassays suggest testing by mass spectrometry to assure accuracy and improve patient safety. Clin Chim Acta. 2012;413(15-16):1199-202. Abstract
Mikel C, Pesce A, West C. 3 things to consider before relying solely on point of care tests for determining benzodiazepine use in chronic pain. Pain Physician. 2012;15(2):E154-5; author reply E155-6. Article
Moeller KE, Lee KC, Kissack JC. Urine drug screening: practical guide for clinicians. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83(1):66-76. Abstract
Pesce et al. Evaluation of diagnostic accuracy of LC-MS/MS v immunoassay drug testing in pain patients. Pain Phys. 2010;13(3):273-281. Article
Tenore PL. Advanced urine toxicology testing. J Addict Dis. 2010;29(4):436-48. Abstract
West et al. Comparison of clonazepam compliance by measurement of urinary concentration by IA and LC-MS/MS in pain management population. Pain Phys. 2010;13(1):71-78. Link
4.9 Indications: Potential / Historical |
Anxiety
Simple anxiety
GAD
SAD
Phobia
PTSD
Insomnia
Seizure disorder
Alcohol withdrawal
Muscle spasm
Night terrors
Somnambulism in children
4.10 Benzodiazepines Use in Subpopulations |
Armed Services / Veterans
Pardo D, Miller L, Chiulli D. Implementation of a pharmacy consult to reduce co-prescribing of opioids and benzodiazepines in a Veteran population. Subst Abus. 2017 Feb 6:0. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Addiction
Brunette MF, Noordsy DL, Xie H, Drake RE. Benzodiazepine use and abuse among patients with severe mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorders. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(10):1395-401. Abstract
Alcoholism
[No authors listed] Alcohol withdrawal syndrome: how to predict, prevent, diagnose and treat it. Prescrire Int. 2007;16(87):24-31.
Ades J, Rodière C. Benzodiazepines in the treatment of alcoholism. Encephale. 1983;9(4 Suppl 2):293B-298B. Abstract
Agabio R, Pani PP, Preti A, et al. Efficacy of medications approved for the treatment of alcohol dependence and alcohol withdrawal syndrome in female patients: a descriptive review. Eur Addict Res. 2016;22(1):1-16. Abstract
Amato L, Minozzi S, Vecchi S, Davoli M. Benzodiazepines for alcohol withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(3):CD005063. Abstract
Chan AW . Effects of combined alcohol and benzodiazepine: a review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1984;13(4):315-41. Abstract
CIWA-Ar: American Society of Addiction Medicine
Ebell MH. Benzodiazepines for alcohol withdrawal. Am Fam Physician. 2006;73(7):1191. Article
Holbrook AM, Crowther R, Lotter A, et al. Meta-analysis of benzodiazepine use in the treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal. CMAJ. 1999;160(5):649-55. Abstract
Ilomäki J, Gnjidic D, Hilmer SN, et al. Psychotropic drug use and alcohol drinking in community-dwelling older Australian men: the CHAMP study. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2013;32(2):218-22. Abstract
Lejoyeux M, Solomon J, Adès J. Benzodiazepine treatment for alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol Alcohol. 1998;33(6):563-75. Abstract
Liang J, Olsen RW. Alcohol use disorders and current pharmacological therapies: the role of GABA(A) receptors. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2014;35(8):981-93. Article
McKeon A, Frye MA, Delanty N. The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008;79(8):854-62. Abstract
Meyer RE. Anxiolytics and the alcoholic patient. J Stud Alcohol. 1986;47(4):269-73. Abstract
Mirijello A, D’Angelo C, Ferrulli A, et al. Identification and management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Drugs. 2015;75(4):353-65. Article
Nutt D, Adinoff B, Linnoila M. Benzodiazepines in the treatment of alcoholism. Recent Dev Alcohol. 1989;7:283-313. Abstract
Poulos CX, Zack M. Low-dose diazepam primes motivation for alcohol and alcohol-related semantic networks in problem drinkers. Behav Pharmacol. 2004;15(7):503-12. Abstract
Waal H, Bramness JG. Benzodiazepines to people with substance abuse problems? Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2010;130(6):610-2. Abstract
Zack M, Poulos CX, Woodford TM. Diazepam dose-dependently increases or decreases implicit priming of alcohol associations in problem drinkers. Alcohol Alcohol. 2006;41(6):604-10. Abstract
Zack M, Toneatto T, MacLeod CM. Clinical use of benzodiazepines and decreased memory activation in anxious problem drinkers. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1999;23(1):174-82. Abstract
Zack M, Toneatto T, MacLeod CM. Implicit activation of alcohol concepts by negative affective cues distinguishes between problem drinkers with high and low psychiatric distress. J Abnorm Psychol. 1999;108(3):518-31. Abstract
Behavioral Addictions
Cannabis Addiction
Nicotine Addiction
Opioid Addiction
Stimulant Addiction
Darke S, Ross J, Cohen J. The use of benzodiazepines among regular amphetamine users. Addiction. 1994;89(12):1683-90. Abstract
Cocaine Addiction
Cancer
American Society of Clinical Oncology 2016 Management of Chronic Pain in Survivors of Adult Cancers
Cardiovascular Disease
Care Facilities
Emergency Department
Kaufmann CN, Spira AP, Alexander GC, et al. Emergency department visits involving benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepine receptor agonists. Am J Emerg Med. 2017 Apr 14. pii: S0735-6757(17)30288-7. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Hospital
Cernaianu AC, DelRossi AJ, Flum DR, et al. Lorazepam and midazolam in the intensive care unit: a randomized, prospective, multicenter study of hemodynamics, oxygen transport, efficacy, and cost. Crit Care Med. 1996;24(2):222-8. Abstract
Dundee JW, Johnston HML, Gray RC. Lorazepam as a sedative-amnesic in an intensive care unit. Curr Med Res Opin. 1976;4:290-5. Abstract
Giroud M, Sellier E, Laval G. Use of midazolam in hospitalized patients: analysis of medical practice. Bull Cancer. 2013;100(9):811-7. Abstract
MacLaren R, Sullivan PW. Pharmacoeconomic modeling of lorazepam, midazolam, and propofol for continuous sedation in critically ill patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2005;25(10):1319-28. Abstract
Niedrig DF, Hoppe L, Mächler S, et al. Benzodiazepine use during hospitalization: automated identification of potential medication errors and systematic assessment of preventable adverse events. PLoS One. 2016;11(10):e0163224. Article
Young C, Knudsen N, Hilton A, Reves JG. Sedation in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(3):854-66. Abstract
Long-Term Care Settings
Cognitive Dysfunction – See also Benzodiazepines Executive Function
Robles Bayón A, Gude Sampedro F. Inappropriate treatments for patients with cognitive decline. Neurologia. 2014;29(9):523-32. Abstract
Criminal Justice
Elderly
Barry PJ, O’Keefe N, O’Connor KA, O’Mahony D. Inappropriate prescribing in the elderly: a comparison of the Beers criteria and the improved prescribing in the elderly tool (IPET) in acutely ill elderly hospitalized patients. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2006;31(6):617-26. Abstract
Bourin M. The problems with the use of benzodiazepines in elderly patients. Encephale. 2010;36(4):340-7. Abstract
Closser MH. Benzodiazepines and the elderly. A review of potential problems. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991;8(1-2):35-41. Abstract
Ćurković M, Dodig-Ćurković K, Erić AP, et al. Psychotropic medications in older adults: a review. Psychiatr Danub. 2016;28(1):13-24. Article
Dailly E, Bourin M. The use of benzodiazepines in the aged patient: clinical and pharmacological considerations. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2008;21(2):144-50. Abstract
Fourrier A, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, et al. Benzodiazepine use in an elderly community-dwelling population. Characteristics of users and factors associated with subsequent use. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2001;57(5):419-25. Abstract
Gallagher P, Barry P, O’Mahony D. Inappropriate prescribing in the elderly. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2007;32(2):113-21. Abstract
Greenblatt DJ, Harmatz JS, Shader RI. Clinical pharmacokinetics of anxiolytics and hypnotics in the elderly. Therapeutic considerations (Part I). Clin Pharmacokinet. 1991;21(3):165-77. Abstract
Haider SI, Johnell K, Thorslund M, Fastbom J. Trends in polypharmacy and potential drug-drug interactions across educational groups in elderly patients in Sweden for the period 1992 – 2002. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007;45(12):643-53. Abstract
Haider SI, Johnell K, Thorslund M, Fastbom J. Analysis of the association between polypharmacy and socioeconomic position among elderly aged > or =77 years in Sweden. Clin Ther. 2008;30(2):419-27. Abstract
Ilomäki J, Paljärvi T, Korhonen MJ, et al. Prevalence of concomitant use of alcohol and sedative-hypnotic drugs in middle and older aged persons: a systematic review. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(2):257-68. Abstract
Ilomäki J, Bell JS, Kauhanen J, Enlund H. Heavy drinking and use of sedative or anxiolytic drugs among aging men: an 11-year follow-up of the FinDrink study. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(10):1240-7. Abstract
Johnell K, Fastbom J. Gender and use of hypnotics or sedatives in old age: a nationwide register-based study. Int J Clin Pharm. 2011;33(5):788-93. Abstract
Johnell K, Fastbom J, Rosén M, Leimanis A. Inappropriate drug use in the elderly: a nationwide register-based study. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41(7):1243-8. Abstract
Kirby M, Denihan A, Bruce I, et al. Benzodiazepine use among the elderly in the community. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;14(4):280-4. Abstract
Lechevallier-Michel N, Berr C, Fourrier-Réglat A. Incidence and characteristics of benzodiazepine use in an elderly cohort: the EVA study. Therapie. 2005;60(6):561-6. Abstract
Lechevallier N, Fourrier A, Berr C. Benzodiazepine use in the elderly: the EVA Study. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique. 2003;51(3):317-26. Abstract
Madhusoodanan S, Bogunovic OJ. Safety of benzodiazepines in the geriatric population. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2004;3(5):485-93. Abstract
Moore AR, O’Keeffe ST. Drug-induced cognitive impairment in the elderly. Drugs Aging. 1999;15(1):15-28. Abstract
Neutel CI, Skurtveit S, Berg C. What is the point of guidelines? Benzodiazepine and z-hypnotic use by an elderly population. Sleep Med. 2012;13(7):893-7. Abstract
Onder G, Liperoti R, Foebel A, et al. Polypharmacy and mortality among nursing home residents with advanced cognitive impairment: results from the SHELTER study. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2013;14(6):450.e7-12. Abstract
Ethnicity
African-American
Asian
Caucasian
Hispanic
Native American
Pacific Island
Gastrointestinal Disease
IBS
Andresen V, Camilleri M. Irritable bowel syndrome: recent and novel therapeutic approaches. Drugs. 2006;66(8):1073-88. Abstract
Friedman G. Treatment of the irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1991;20(2):325-33. Abstract
Inoue M. Pharmaceutical treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Nihon Rinsho. 1992;50(11):2746-51. Abstract
Salari P, Abdollahi M. Systematic review of modulators of benzodiazepine receptors in irritable bowel syndrome: is there hope? World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17(38):4251-7. Article
Tanaka Y, Kanazawa M, Fukudo S, Grossman DA. Biopsychosocial model of irritable bowel syndrome. J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;17(2):131-9. Article
Health Care Providers
Hepatic Disease
Jones EA, Skolnick P, Gammal SH, et al. NIH conference. The gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABAA) receptor complex and hepatic encephalopathy. Some recent advances. Ann Intern Med. 1989;110(7):532-46. Abstract
HIV / AIDS
New York State Department of Health 2012 Perioperative Management of HIV-Infected Patients
LGBT
Men
Neurologic Disease
Alzheimer’s Disease
Laitinen ML, Bell JS, Lavikainen P, et al. Nationwide study of antipsychotic use among community-dwelling persons with Alzheimer’s disease in Finland. Int Psychogeriatr. 2011;23(10):1623-31. Abstract
Saarelainen L, Taipale H, Koponen M, et al. The incidence of benzodiazepine and related drug use in persons with and without Alzheimer’s Disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016;49(3):809-18. Abstract
Taipale H, Koponen M, Tanskanen A, et al. Long-term use of benzodiazepines and related drugs among community-dwelling individuals with and without Alzheimer’s disease. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015;30(4):202-8. Abstract
Taipale H, Koponen M, Tanskanen A, et al. High prevalence of psychotropic drug use among persons with and without Alzheimer’s disease in Finnish nationwide cohort. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(11):1729-37. Abstract
Movement Disorders
American Academy of Neurology 2013 Evidence-Based Guideline: Treatment of Tardive Syndromes
American Academy of Neurology 2005 Evidence-Based Guideline: Treatment of Essential Tremor
Seizure Disorder
Isojärvi JI, Tokola RA. Benzodiazepines in the treatment of epilepsy in people with intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res. 1998;42 Suppl 1:80-92. Abstract
Leppik IE, Derivan AT, Homan RW, et al. Double-blind study of lorazepam and diazepam in status epilepticus. JAMA. 1983;249(11):1452-4. Abstract
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance. The Epilepsies: The Diagnosis and Management of the Epilepsies in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care: Pharmacological Update of Clinical Guideline 20. 2012. Document
Neurocritical Care Society 2004 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Status Epilepticus
Prasad M, Krishnan PR, Sequeira R, Al-Roomi K. Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(9):CD003723. Abstract
Rey E, Tréluyer JM, Pons G. Pharmacokinetic optimization of benzodiazepine therapy for acute seizures. Focus on delivery routes. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1999;36(6):409-24. Abstract
Riss J, Cloyd J, Gates J, Collins S. Benzodiazepines in epilepsy: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. Acta Neurol Scand. 2008;118(2):69-86. Abstract
Sieghart W. GABA(A) benzodiazepine receptors and epilepsy. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1990;102(7):197-201. Abstract
Treiman DM. Pharmacokinetics and clinical use of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 1989;30 Suppl 2:S4-10. Abstract
Trinka E, Höfler J, Leitinger M, Brigo F. Pharmacotherapy for status epilepticus. Drugs. 2015;75(13):1499-521. Article
TBI
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2012 Traumatic Brain Injury Medical Treatment Guidelines
Pain
American Pain Society 2014 Methadone Safety: A Clinical Practice Guideline
American Society of Clinical Oncology 2016 Management of Chronic Pain in Survivors of Adult Cancers
CDC 2016 CDC guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain – United States, 2016
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2014 Low Back Pain Medical Treatment Guidelines
Colorado Division of Workers Compensation 2014 Cervical Spine Injury Medical Treatment Guidelines
National Guideline Center 2016 Major Trauma: Assessment and Initial Management
National Guideline Center 2016 Spinal Injury: Assessment and Initial Management
National Guideline Center 2016 Fractures (Non-Complex): Assessment and Management
Palliative Care – End of Life
Azoulay D, Shahal-Gassner R, Yehezkel M, et al. Palliative sedation at the end of life: patterns of use in an Israeli hospice. Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2016;33(4):369-73. Abstract
Beller EM, van Driel ML, McGregor L, et al. Palliative pharmacological sedation for terminally ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1:CD010206. Abstract
Devabhakthuni S, Armahizer MJ, Dasta JF, Kane-Gill SL. Analgosedation: a paradigm shift in intensive care unit sedation practice. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(4):530-40. Abstract
Hahn MP. Review of palliative sedation and its distinction from euthanasia and lethal injection. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2012;26(1):30-9. Abstract
Hopprich A, Günther LD, Laufenberg-Feldmann R, et al. Palliative sedation at a university palliative care unit – a descriptive analysis. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2016;141(8):e60-6. Abstract
Kamell A, Smith LK. Attitudes toward use of benzodiazepines among US hospice clinicians: survey and review of the literature. J Palliat Med. 2016;19(5):516-22. Article
Maltoni M, Miccinesi G, Morino P, et al. Prospective observational Italian study on palliative sedation in two hospice settings: differences in case mixes and clinical care. Support Care Cancer. 2012;20(11):2829-36. Abstract
Materstvedt LJ, Kaasa S. Is terminal sedation active euthanasia? Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2000;120(15):1763-8. Abstract
Morita T, Chinone Y, Ikenaga M, et al. Efficacy and safety of palliative sedation therapy: a multicenter, prospective, observational study conducted on specialized palliative care units in Japan. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2005;30(4):320-8. Abstract
National Guideline Center 2015 Care of Dying Adults in the Last Days of Life
Nyström C. Effects of long-term benzodiazepine medication. A prospective cohort study: methodological and clinical aspects. Nord J Psychiatry. 2005;59(6):492-7. Abstract
Pélissolo A, Maniere F, Boutges B, et al. Anxiety and depressive disorders in 4,425 long term benzodiazepine users in general practice. Encephale. 2007;33(1):32-8. Abstract
Schur S, Radbruch L, Masel EK, et al. Walking the line. Palliative sedation for existential distress: still a controversial issue? Wien Med Wochenschr. 2015;165(23-24):487-90. Abstract
Simon ST, Higginson IJ, Booth S, et al. Benzodiazepines for the relief of breathlessness in advanced malignant and non-malignant diseases in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;10:CD007354. Abstract
Sprung CL, Ledoux D, Bulow HH, et al. Relieving suffering or intentionally hastening death: where do you draw the line? Crit Care Med. 2008;36(1):8-13. Abstract
Sykes N, Thorns A. Sedative use in the last week of life and the implications for end-of-life decision making. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(3):341-4. Abstract
ten Have H, Welie JV. Palliative sedation versus euthanasia: an ethical assessment. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2014;47(1):123-36. Abstract
van Deijck RH, Rondas AA, Berghmans RL. Terminal sedation in mentally competent patients: no overriding medical-ethical arguments against in the medical literature. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003;147(50):2479-83. Abstract
Vitetta L, Kenner D, Sali A. Sedation and analgesia-prescribing patterns in terminally ill patients at the end of life. Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2005;22(6):465-73. Abstract
Voeuk A, Oneschuk D. Continuous palliative sedation therapy. Can Fam Physician. 2014;60(9):813-5, e436-8. Article
Pediatric
McCabe SE, West BT. Medical and nonmedical use of prescription benzodiazepine anxiolytics among U.S. high school seniors. Addict Behav. 2014;39(5):959-64. Article
McCabe SE, Boyd CJ, Young A. Medical and nonmedical use of prescription drugs among secondary school students. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40(1):76-83. Article
Murphy KD, Sahm LJ, McCarthy S, Byrne S. Benzodiazepine prescribing guideline adherence and misuse potential in Irish minors. Int J Clin Pharm. 2015;37(5):749-52. Abstract
National Guideline Alliance 2016 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management
Yeh HH, Chen CY, Fang SY, et al. Five-year trajectories of long-term benzodiazepine use by adolescents: patient, provider, and medication factors. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(8):900-7. Abstract
Psychiatric Disease Other than Anxiety
ADHD
National Guideline Alliance 2016 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management
BPD
Bobo WV, Reilly-Harrington NA, Ketter TA, et al. Complexity of illness and adjunctive benzodiazepine use in outpatients with bipolar I or II disorder: results from the Bipolar CHOICE study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015;35(1):68-74. Abstract
Bobo WV, Reilly-Harrington NA, Ketter TA, et al. Effect of adjunctive benzodiazepines on clinical outcomes in lithium- or quetiapine-treated outpatients with bipolar I or II disorder: results from the Bipolar CHOICE trial. J Affect Disord. 2014;161:30-5. Article
Depression
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Antidepressant and benzodiazepine for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(1):CD001026. Abstract
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Is antidepressant-benzodiazepine combination therapy clinically more useful? A meta-analytic study. J Affect Disord. 2001;65(2):173-7. Abstract
Furukawa TA, Streiner DL, Young LT. Antidepressant plus benzodiazepine for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(2):CD001026. Abstract
Kaiser Permanente Care Management Institute 2012 Diagnosis and Treatment of Depression in Adults
Martin P. Coadministration benzodiazepine and antidepressant drugs: the state of art. Encephale. 2006;32(5 Pt 1):753-66. Abstract
Rizvi SJ, Sproule BA, Gallaugher L, et al. Correlates of benzodiazepine use in major depressive disorder: The effect of anhedonia. J Affect Disord. 2015;187:101-5. Abstract
Psychosis
Csernansky JG, Riney SJ, Lombrozo L, et al. Double-blind comparison of alprazolam, diazepam, and placebo for the treatment of negative schizophrenic symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(7):655-9. Abstract
Dold M, Li C, Tardy M, et al. Benzodiazepines for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11:CD006391. Abstract
Gaillard R, Ouanas A, Spadone C, et al. Benzodiazepines and schizophrenia, a review of the literature. Encephale. 2006;32(6 Pt 1):1003-10. Abstract
Tiihonen J, Suokas JT, Suvisaari JM, et al. Polypharmacy with antipsychotics, antidepressants, or benzodiazepines and mortality in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(5):476-83. Abstract
Volz A, Khorsand V, Gillies D, Leucht S. Benzodiazepines for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD006391. Abstract
Suicidality – See also Benzodiazepines & Suicidality, Violence, Homicide
Pulmonary Disease
Ekström MP, Bornefalk-Hermansson A, Abernethy AP, Currow DC. Safety of benzodiazepines and opioids in very severe respiratory disease: national prospective study. BMJ. 2014;348:g445. Article
Renal Disease
Wyne A, , Rai R, Cuerden M, et al. Opioid and benzodiazepine use in end-stage renal disease: a systematic review. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;6(2):326-33. Article
Sleep Disorders (See also Benzodiazepine Use Insomnia)
Sleep Apnea
Surgery
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine 2012 Analgesia and Anesthesia for the Breastfeeding Mother
Ho KM, Ismail H. Use of intrathecal midazolam to improve perioperative analgesia: a meta-analysis. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2008;36(3):365-73. Abstract
New York State Department of Health 2012 Perioperative Management of HIV-Infected Patients
Swallowing Disorders
Women
Perinatal
ACOG 2008 Use of Psychiatric Medications during Pregnancy and Lactation
American Society of Anesthesiologists 2016 Practice Guidelines for Obstetric Anesthesia
Handal M, Engeland A, Rønning M, et al. Use of prescribed opioid analgesics and co-medication with benzodiazepines in women before, during, and after pregnancy: a population-based cohort study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;67(9):953-60. Abstract
Kanto JH. Use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy, labour and lactation, with particular reference to pharmacokinetic considerations. Drugs. 1982;23(5):354-80. Abstract
McElhatton PR. The effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol. 1994;8(6):461-75. Abstract
Olive G, Rey E. Benzodiazepines and pregnancy. Transplacental passage, labor and lactation. Encephale. 1983;9(4 Suppl 2):87B-96B. Abstract
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Nursing
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine 2012 Analgesia and Anesthesia for the Breastfeeding Mother
